Recycling of Chicken Egg Shells into Nanopowder: Synthesis, and its Properties

تم تحسين الموارد غير التقليدية من الكالسيوم (Ca+2) للطيور والأحياء المائية والحيوانات المحلية. تم التخطيط لهذا البحث لتحديد أكثر أنواع كربونات الكالسيوم تعددًا (CaCO3) التي تحدث في نوعي قشر بيض الدجاج (النوع المحلي والنوع المستورد). في هذا البحث ، تمت العمل على التحليل المقارن لمحتوى كربونات الكالسيوم) (CaCO3 لقشر البيض من السلالة المحلية والمستوردة عبر اجراء تحليل المجهر الإلكتروني لمسح الانبعاث الميداني (FESEM) ، ومجهر الإرسال الإلكتروني (TEM) ، والتحليل الطيفي للأشعة تحت الحمراء (FTIR) و تحليل حيود الشعاع للمسحوق (PXRD). أظهرت النتائج أن قشر بيض الدجاج الأصلي والمستورد يشتمل على شكل الكالسيت الذي له شكل  بين المعيني والكروي مع توزيع مسام مميز في السطح وحجم تبلور (31) نانومتر لقشر بيض الدجاج المحلي و (32) نانومتر لقشر بيض الدجاج المستورد على التوالي. يوجز الباحثون نتائجهم بأن قشر بيض الدجاج المحلي والمستورد يحتوي على أعلى موارد كربونات الكالسيوم (CaCO3).Increase in unconventional resources of calcium (Ca+2) for fowls, aquaculture and native animals was improved. This work was planned to define the most polymorph of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) that take place in the two types of chicken eggshells (local and imported type). In this research, the comparative analysis of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content was approved for nominated eggshells of native strain and imported chicken via Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Powder X-Ray Diffraction (PXRD) analysis. The results demonstrate that native and imported chicken eggshells comprise calcite morph that had shape between rhombohedral and spherical with distinguished pores distribution in the surface and crystallization size (31) nanometer for local chicken eggshells and (32) nanometer for import chicken eggshells respectively. The authors brief their results that local and import chicken eggshells had the top resources of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

Preparation and characterization of cockle shell aragonite nanocomposite porous 3D scaffolds for bone repair

The demands for applicable tissue-engineered scaffolds that can be used to repair load-bearing segmental bone defects (SBDs) is vital and in increasing demand. In this study, seven different combinations of 3 dimensional (3D) novel nanocomposite porous structured scaffolds were fabricated to rebuild SBDs using an extraordinary blend of cockle shells (CaCo3) nanoparticles (CCN), gelatin, dextran and dextrin to structure an ideal bone scaffold with adequate degradation rate using the Freeze Drying Method (FDM) and labeled as 5211, 5400, 6211, 6300, 7101, 7200 and 8100. The micron sized cockle shells powder obtained (75 µm) was made into nanoparticles using mechano-chemical, top-down method of nanoparticles synthesis with the presence of the surfactant BS-12 (dodecyl dimethyl bataine). The phase purity and crystallographic structures, the chemical functionality and the thermal characterization of the scaffolds’ powder were recognized using X-Ray Diffractometer (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometer and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) respectively. Characterizations of the scaffolds were assessed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Degradation Manner, Water Absorption Test, Swelling Test, Mechanical Test and Porosity Test. Top-down method produced cockle shell nanoparticles having averagely range 37.8±3–55.2±9 nm in size, which were determined using Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM). A mainly aragonite form of calcium carbonate was identified in both XRD and FTIR for all scaffolds, while the melting (Tm) and transition (Tg) temperatures were identified using DSC with the range of Tm 62.4–75.5 °C and of Tg 230.6–232.5 °C. The newly prepared scaffolds were with the following characteristics: (i) good biocompatibility and biodegradability, (ii) appropriate surface chemistry and (iii) highly porous, with interconnected pore network. Engineering analyses showed that scaffold 5211 possessed 3D interconnected homogenous porous structure with a porosity of about 49%, pore sizes ranging from 8.97 to 337 µm, mechanical strength 20.3 MPa, Young's Modulus 271±63 MPa and enzymatic degradation rate 22.7 within 14 days

Safety assessments of subcutaneous doses of aragonite calcium carbonate nanocrystals in rats

Calcium carbonate nanoparticles have shown promising potentials in the delivery of drugs and metabolites. There is however, a paucity of information on the safety of their intentional or accidental over exposures to biological systems and general health safety. To this end, this study aims at documenting information on the safety of subcutaneous doses of biogenic nanocrystals of aragonite polymorph of calcium carbonate derived from cockle shells (ANC) in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. ANC was synthesized using the top-down method, characterized using the transmission electron microscopy and field emission scanning electron microscope and its acute and repeated dose 28-day trial toxicities were evaluated in SD rats. The results showed that the homogenous 30 ± 5 nm-sized spherical pure aragonite nanocrystals were not associated with mortality in the rats. Severe clinical signs and gross and histopathological lesions, indicating organ toxicities, were recorded in the acute toxicity (29,500 mg/m2) group and the high dose (5900 mg/m2) group of the repeated dose 28-day trial. However, the medium- (590 mg/m2 body weight) and low (59 mg/m2)-dose groups showed moderate to mild lesions. The relatively mild lesions observed in the low toxicity dosage group marked the safety margin of ANC in SD rats. It was concluded from this study that the toxicity of CaCO3 was dependent on the particulate size (30 ± 5 nm) and concentration and the route of administration used

Formulation of a sustained release docetaxel loaded cockle shell-derived calcium carbonate nanoparticles against breast cancer

Purpose: Here, we explored the formulation of a calcium carbonate nanoparticle delivery system aimed at enhancing docetaxel (DTX) release in breast cancer. Methods: The designed nano- anticancer formulation was characterized thorough X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) methods. The nano- anticancer formulation (DTX- CaCO3NP) was evaluated for drug delivery properties thorough in vitro release study in human body simulated solution at pH 7.4 and intracellular lysosomal pH 4.8. Results: Characterization revealed the successful synthesis of DTX- CaCO3NP, which had a sustained release at pH 7.4. TEM showed uniformly distributed pleomorphic shaped pure aragonite particles. The highest entrapment efficiency (96%) and loading content (11.5%) were obtained at docetaxel to nanoparticles ratio of 1:4. The XRD patterns revealed strong crystallizations in all the nanoparticles formulation, while FTIR showed chemical interactions between the drug and nanoparticles with negligible positional shift in the peaks before and after DTX loading. BET analysis showed similar isotherms before and after DTX loading. The designed DTX- CaCO3NP had lower (p 0.05) effects at 48 h and 72 h. However, the DTX- CaCO3NP released less than 80% of bond DTX at 48 and 72 h but showed comparable effects with free DTX. Conclusions: The results showed that the developed DTX- CaCO3NP released DTX slower at pH 7.4 and had comparable cytotoxicity with free DTX at 48 and 72 h in MCF-7 cells

Development of nanocomposite 3D-scaffolds for bone repair

The demands for applicable tissue-engineered scaffolds that can be used to repair load-bearing segmental bone defects (SBDs) are vital and increasing. Significant bone problems named trauma, deformity and tumors leave the patients under the pressure of surgical complications, high cost, risk of infection, donor shortage and slow healing process. The main objective of this study is to develop porous nanocomposite scaffold from cockle shell nanopowder for SBD repair. In this study, 9 different combinations of nanocomposite porous scaffolds were fabricated using various proportion of cockle shell-derived CaCO3 aragonite nanoparticles, gelatin, dextran and dextrin. The scaffold then used for repairing critical-size bone defect (2 cm) that made on the shaft of radial bone of 16 adult, male New Zealand White rabbits which divided into four groups (n=4): Group A (control), Group B (scaffold 5211), Group C (5211GTA+Alginate) and Group D (5211PLA). The defect site implanted with scaffold was assessed for 8 weeks by means of radiography, hematology, biochemistry, grossly and histology. The micron sized cockle shell-derived CaCO3 powder obtained (75 μm) was transformed into nanoparticles using mechano-chemical and ball mill (top-down) methods of nanoparticle synthesis with the presence of surfactant BS-12 (dodecyl dimethyl bataine). The phase purity and crystallographic structures, the chemical functionality and the thermal characterization of the scaffolds’ powder were analyzed using Fourier Transform InfraRed (FTIR) spectrophotometer, Powder X-Ray Diffractometer (PXRD) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), respectively. Characterizations of the scaffolds were assessed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), porosity test, swelling test, water absorption test, degradation manner and mechanical test. The cytocompatibility of the scaffolds was assessed in terms of cell attachment, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) concentration, cell proliferation and capability to form mineralized bone nodules. The tests were conducted throughout In vitro cell culture using human Fetal OsteoBlast cells line (hFOB). Top-down methods produced cockle shell-derived CaCO3 aragonite nanoparticles having size range of 15.94-55.21±6 nm which were determined using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The aragonite form of calcium carbonate was identified in both PXRD and FTIR for all scaffolds, while the melting (Tm) and transition temperatures (Tg) were identified using DSC with the range of Tm 62.41-75.51°C and Tg 229.38-232.58°C. Engineering analyses showed that scaffolds possessed a 3D interconnected homogenous porous structure with pore sizes 8-526 μm, porosity 6-97%, mechanical strength 4-65 MPa, Young’s Modulus104-296 MPa and enzymatic degradation rate 16-67% within 2, 4 and 10 weeks. The biological evaluation also showed that all scaffolds did enhance the osteoblast proliferation rate and improved the osteoblast function as demonstrated by the significant increase in ALP concentration. Radiographic examination showed new trabecular bone formation that signifies the bone healing/regeneration. This occurred in the defects edge as well as in the middle within one month which involved osteogenesis that moved within the central region and margin of the scaffold implant. This was attained with negligible tissue responses to a foreign body which was seen through hematology, biochemistry and histopathological analyses results. Grossly and histologically, after 8 weeks post-implantation the quantity of mature bone increased forming whole bone. The new bone tissue that was produced was successively matured within time as anticipated with increased mature cortical bone development and regeneration. Animal experiment revealed that the material used was able to resist load-bearing situations in extended usage without material breaking or generating stress protective effects to the bone of the host. This work signifies a key development in the healing of artificial bone grafts and suggests that the biomaterial of the grafted scaffold could possess great potential in prospective clinical uses where regeneration of bone is necessary