THE BLENDING OF PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS: WEALTH STATUS, GENDER AND THE ADOPTION OF IMPROVED FALLOWS IN ZAMBIA

Although there is increasing emphasis on targeting of improved technology towards poor and female farmers, few adoption studies assess the uptake of new practices by these groups in a comprehensive manner. In this study, community members used the wealth ranking method to identify the different wealth groups in their communities, to determine each household's wealth status, and to assess the association of wealth and different types of households with the planting of improved tree fallows, a practice for improving crop yields. There were no significant differences between the proportions of women and men planting improved fallows nor were there differences between single women and female heads of households who were married. There was some evidence of association between planting improved fallows and wealth. That 22% of the 'poor' group and 16% of the 'very poor' group were planting them suggests that there are no barriers preventing low-income households from doing so. Moreover, the proportion of females, poor, and very poor people planting improved fallows varied considerably among villages, suggesting that opportunities exist for increasing their use of technology. Whereas the use of mineral fertilizer is strongly associated with high-income, male farmers, improved fallows appear to be a gender-neutral and wealth-neutral technology. Poor farmers appreciate improved fallows because they permit them to substitute small amounts of land and labour for cash, their most scarce resource. Finally, the high degree of consistency among different key informants in classifying households among wealth groups confirmed the effectiveness and accuracy of the wealth ranking exercise.Adoption, agroforestry, Participatory research, Sesbania sesban, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies,

Perception of climate change and coping strategies among smallholder irrigators in Zimbabwe

IntroductionAcross sub-Sahara Africa, governments and international aid agencies are making huge investments in smallholder irrigation schemes to enhance food security, climate resilience and economic transformation in rain-fed farming systems. Unfortunately, a majority of the smallholder irrigation schemes have performed dismally on these fronts. Climate change is a major exacerbating factor to existing challenges resulting in the poor performance of the schemes. Hence, it is crucial to understand smallholder irrigators' perceptions of climate change and current adaptation strategies to co-design appropriate and acceptable adaptation strategies to address water stress in the schemes. This area had received less significant research attention. This study aims to determine the perception of climate change and coping strategies in smallholder schemes.MethodsA mixed-method research strategy was used to collect data from 317 irrigation scheme farmers in three schemes (Exchange, Insukamini, and Ruchanyu) in Midlands Province. A binary logistic regression (BLR) method was used for data analysis.ResultsThe results suggest that scheme farmers have noticed changes in temperature and rainfall patterns. Results obtained from the model show that climate change perception was mainly influenced by age, gender, location, irrigation experience, and plot size. Farmers perceived that climatic change has resulted in decreased irrigation water availability, thus leading to poor yields. This study also shows that the main adaptation strategies to water stress include improving soil moisture conservation, construction of small-scale reservoirs, water charging and trade, setting clear water use priorities, and adoption of climate-resilient and short-season crop varieties. Perception of high temperatures, long dry periods, late rainfall, increase in the frequency of drought, shortening of cold season, and shortening of rain season influence adaptation strategies adopted by scheme farmers.ConclusionThis study offered useful data for policymakers and irrigation developers to develop appropriate policies and programs to improve the sustainability of schemes given current and projected water stress in Zimbabwe and sub-Sahara Africa in general

Monitoring of soil water content in maize rotated with pigeonpea fallows in South Africa

Maize production under smallholder systems in South Africa (RSA) depends on rainfall. Incidences of dry spells throughout the growing season have affected maize yields negatively. The study examined water distribution and water use efficiency (WUE) of maize rotated with two-year pigeonpea fallows as compared to continuous maize without fertilizer. A randomized complete block design, replicated three times, was used with four treatments, which included continuous unfertilized maize, natural fallow-maize, pigeonpea + grass-pigeonpea-maize, and two-year pigeonpea fallow-maize. Soil water mark sensors were installed 0.2; 0.5; and 1.2 m on each plot to monitor soil water tension (kPa). Soil samples were analyzed using pressure plates to determine water retention curves which were used to convert soil water tension to volumetric water content. Maize rotated with two-year pigeonpea fallows had higher dry matter yield (11,661 kg ha1) and WUE (20.78 kg mm1) than continuous maize (5314 kg ha1 and 9.48 kg mm1). In this era of water scarcity and drought incidences caused by climate change, maize rotated with pigeonpea fallows is recommended among smallholder farmers in RSA because of its higher WUE, hence food security will be guaranteed.Water Research Commission of South Africa (WRC)http://www.mdpi.com/journal/wateram2021Plant Production and Soil Scienc

Improved fallows in Eastern Zambia: history, farmer practice and impacts

"The decline in soil fertility in smallholder systems is a major factor inhibiting equitable development in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Some areas fallow in order to strength soil fertility for later planting, but as populations increase, demand follows and continuous cropping becomes the norm and there is a reduction in yields. This case study summarizes the development of improved tree fallows by researchers and farmers in eastern Zambia to help solve the problem of poor soil fertility. Many farmers are finding that by using improved fallows, they can substitute relatively small amounts of land and labor for cash, which they would need to buy mineral fertilizer. The study has three phases: the historical background (phase 1); an assessment of problems, description of the technology, and how it was developed (phase 2); and how the improved fallows practices were disseminated and spread (phase 3). This paper will describe each phase, the goals, and results." Authors' AbstractSouthern Africa, africa south of sahara, Crop yields,

Weed community responses to soil type during transition to no-till practice on smallholder farms in Zimbabwe

Understanding drivers of weed density and diversity is essential for the development of weed management strategies. Here, we compared temporal changes in weed density and diversity under no-till (NT) and conventional (CONV) tillage systems in cotton–maize rotations on loam, clay loam and sandy loam soils immediately after transition to NT in Kadoma, Zimbabwe. The effect of tillage system on weed density varied through the growth season and was dependent upon soil type and species composition of the weed community. Although weed responses to tillage system varied amongst species, we identified general trend effects on weed density on specific soils. At 3 weeks after crop emergence (WACE), weed density on loam soils was 76% and 96% higher in NT than in CONV during the 2009/2010 and 2010/2011 seasons, respectively, and on clay loam soils it was 37% and 33% higher in NT than CONV, respectively. Weed densities in NT and CONV were similar across all soil types at 6 WACE during the 2009/2010 and 2010/2011 seasons and at 9 WACE in 2009/2010. Tillage system did not affect weed density during the growth season on sandy loam soils. Weed diversity (Shannon index) was at least 75% higher in NT than CONV on loam and clay loam soils at 3 WACE during both seasons. It is likely these increases in weed densities following conversion to NT will exacerbate already prevalent weed management problems in the smallholder sector. Earlier weeding is recommended to suppress weed emergence and reduce likely associated crop yield losses.http://wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/wrehj2021Plant Production and Soil Scienc

Pigeonpea Yield and Water Use Efficiency: A Savior under Climate Change-Induced Water Stress

Frequent droughts have threatened the crop yields and livelihoods of many smallholder farmers in South Africa. Pigeonpea can be grown by farmers to mitigate the impacts of droughts caused by climate change. An experiment was conducted at Fountainhill Farm from January 2016 to December 2017. The trial examined grain yield in addition to water use efficiency (WUE) of pigeonpea intercropped with maize versus sole pigeonpea and maize. A randomized complete block design, replicated three times, was used. Soil water tension was measured at 20, 50, and 120 cm within plots. The highest and lowest soil water tension was recorded at 20 m and 120 m respectively. Combined biomass and grain yield were significantly different: pigeonpea + maize (5513 kg ha−1) > pigeonpea (3368 kg ha−1) > maize (2425 kg ha−1). A similar trend was observed for WUE and land equivalent ratio (LER), where pigeonpea + maize outperformed all sole cropping systems. The inclusion of pigeonpea in a traditional mono-cropping system is recommended for smallholder farmers due to greater WUE, LER and other associated benefits such as food, feed and soil fertility amelioration, and it can reduce the effects of droughts induced by climate change

The 5As: assessing access to animal drawn conservation agriculture planting equipment by smallholder farmers

Conservation agriculture is a global response to rampant land degradation, soil nutrient mining, declining crop yields and climate change and variability in southern Africa. In Zimbabwe, digging of planting basins is the main archetype of conservation agriculture practiced by a majority of smallholder farmers. Yet, a majority of smallholder farmers have complained about the labour demand of this typology of conservation agriculture, particularly at planting. Access to animal-drawn CA planting machinery may reduce the labour burden of the technology. However, there is paucity of the literature addressing the non-socio-demographic determinants of access to animal-drawn CA planting equipment in Zimbabwe. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate access to animal-drawn CA planting equipment by smallholder farmers in Chivi, Murehwa and Mutoko districts located in different agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe using the 5As framework of access: acceptability, accessibility, affordability, awareness and availability. Data were collected through a household questionnaire, which was triangulated with focus group discussions, key informant interviews and personal observations. The significant non-socio-economic access to animal-drawn CA planting machinery factors was: acceptability, accessibility, affordability and availability (mean scores of 1.32, 1.44, 1.90 and 1.36, respectively). We recommend the provision of monetary incentives to farmers practicing conservation agriculture. Such incentives have to be based on amount of carbon sequestered and should solely be used for the purchase of conservation agriculture equipment

Tracking the Release of Soil Nitrate and Labile C in A Legume-Maize Rotation in Zimbabwe

This study compared the effect of a weedy fallow (5.2 t/ha biomass), a velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) cut for hay (7.2 t/ha biomass) and a green-manured M. pruriens (6.49 t/ha biomass) on the dynamics of soil N and C in a maize crop. An on-farm, farmer participatory experiment was established on a farmer’s field in Wedza District, Zimbabwe. Soil mineral N and labile carbon were determined at intervals upto 120 cm depth, at maize planting and at 1 and 2 weeks after planting. Before planting, the soil mineral N content ranged from 28 kg N/ha after weed fallow to 107 kgN/ha following M. pruriens. Total nitrate concentration was highest in the 0-15 cm depth of the M. pruriens treatments in the pre-planting sampling, but following rainfall and maize planting, nitrate concentration declined rapidly. By 2 weeks after planting, 7.5 and 13.5 kg N/ha remained in the 0-120 cm soil depth of the weedy fallow and green-manured M. pruriens, respectively. Improving synchrony of nutrient release and uptake is critical when applying high quality residues which breakdown relatively slowly. This could result in significant inputs of C, release nutrients more slowly and reduce soil nutrient losses

Behaviour of smallholder farmers towards adoption of conservation agriculture in Zimbabwe

Conservation agriculture is critical to sustainably increasing agricultural productivity, enhancing climate resilience and food security. Much research on adoption of conservation agriculture has focused on its agronomic benefits, but little attention has been paid to the contribution of the behaviour of farmers over its adoption. To close this gap, a study was carried out to investigate the behaviour of smallholder farmers towards the adoption of conservation agriculture in Chivi, Murehwa and Mutoko districts, Zimbabwe. Data were collected through a pre‐tested questionnaire administered to 360 farmers, selected through a multi‐stage sampling process. This method was triangulated through focus group discussions, key informant interviews and personal observations. Data were analysed using percentages, means and inferential statistics. The results show that, although fewer than 10% of the respondents had received any formal training in agriculture, more than 80% of them relied on it for their major source of income. The respondents had high levels of knowledge on the social, environmental and economic benefits of conservation agriculture. However, the majority of the non‐adopters had an indifferent perception towards conservation agriculture. The knowledge and perception of the farmers was explained by age, gender, education and experience with conservation agriculture. Results also show a weak but significant correlation between knowledge and perception (Rs = 0.306, p < 0.05), knowledge and adoption (Rs = 0.484, p < 0.05) but a strong and significant correlation between perception and adoption (Rs = 0.808, p < 0.05). Addressing perception gaps is key to enhance adoption of conservation agriculture

Factors affecting the performance of Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme in Limpopo Province, South Africa.

Smallholder irrigation farming is valuable for improving the welfare of rural communities in South Africa. Irrigation schemes in South Africa perform below average as some collapsed. Boosting performance of irrigation schemes will ensure economic sustainability for low-income earners. There is little scholarly literature on factors affecting performance of smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa. Therefore, this study assessed factors affecting yield and gross margin of sweet potato in Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme. Data was collected using structured questionnaires, Focus Group Discussions and in-depth interviews. Performance of the irrigation scheme was analysed using Ordinary Least Square. Yield or gross margin of sweet potatoes were used as proxies for scheme performance. Six estimators, namely age of farmers (-0.022), labour availability (-0.185), cultivated area (-0.130), pesticide subsidy (0.138), market price (6.090), and distance of the plot from the main canal (0.191) significantly impacted performance of the scheme. Minimum participation of farmers in value chain exposed then to lower market prices. Gross margin was generally low due to limited participation of aging farmers in the value chain. Performance of the scheme can be improved through providing and ensuring competitive prices and encouraging youth to participate in scheme farming by providing lucrative market prices