Gravitomagnetism and the Clock Effect

The main theoretical aspects of gravitomagnetism are reviewed. It is shown that the gravitomagnetic precession of a gyroscope is intimately connected with the special temporal structure around a rotating mass that is revealed by the gravitomagnetic clock effect. This remarkable effect, which involves the difference in the proper periods of a standard clock in prograde and retrograde circular geodesic orbits around a rotating mass, is discussed in detail. The implications of this effect for the notion of ``inertial dragging'' in the general theory of relativity are presented. The theory of the clock effect is developed within the PPN framework and the possibility of measuring it via spaceborne clocks is examined.Comment: 27 pages, LaTeX, submitted to Proc. Bad Honnef Meeting on: GYROS, CLOCKS, AND INTERFEROMETERS: TESTING GENERAL RELATIVITY IN SPACE (22 - 27 August 1999; Bad Honnef, Germany

The Ahuachapan geothermal field, El Salvador: Reservoir analysis

These are appendices F through I of the Ahuachapan Geothermal Field Reservoir Analysis. The volume contains: well logs, water chemistry plots, gas chemistry plots, temperature plots, and flow plots. (JEF

Beneficial effects of groundwater entry into liquid-dominated geothermal systems

In all active liquid-dominated geothermal systems there is continuous circulation of mass and transfer of heat, otherwise they would slowly cool and fade away. In the natural state these systems are in dynamic equilibrium with the surrounding colder groundwater aquifers. The ascending geothermal fluids cool conductively, boil, or mix with groundwaters, and ultimately may discharge at the surface as fumaroles or hot springs. With the start of fluid production and the lowering of reservoir pressure, the natural equilibrium is disrupted and cooler groundwater tends to enter the reservoir. Improperly constructed or damaged wells, and wells located near the margins of the geothermal system, exhibit temperature reductions (and possibly scaling from mixing of chemically distinct fluids) as the cooler-water moves into the reservoir. These negative effects, especially in peripheral wells are, however, compensated by the maintenance of reservoir pressure and a reduction in reservoir boiling that might result in mineral precipitation in the formation pores and fractures. The positive effect of cold groundwater entry on the behavior of liquid-dominated system is illustrated by using simple reservoir models. The simulation results show that even though groundwater influx into the reservoir causes cooling of fluids produced from wells located near the cold-water recharge area, it also reduces pressure drawdown and boiling in the exploited zone, and sweeps the heat stored in the reservoir rocks toward production wells, thus increasing the productive life of the wells and field. 9 refs

Reservoir simulation and geochemical study of Cerro Prieto I wells

Combined reservoir simulation and geochemical data analysis are used to investigate the effects of recharge and other reservoir processes occurring in the western part of the Cerro Prieto, Mexico, geothermal field (i.e., Cerro Prieto I area). Enthalpy-based temperatures and bottomhole temperatures are calculated based on simplified models of the system, considering different reservoir boundary conditions and zones of contrasting initial temperatures and reservoir properties. By matching the computed trends with geothermometer-based temperature and enthalpy histories of producing wells, the main processes active in the western area of Cerro Prieto are identified. This part of the geothermal system is strongly influenced by nearby groundwater aquifers; cooler waters readily recharge the reservoirs. In response to exploitation, the natural influx of cold water into the shallower alpha reservoir is mainly from the west and down Fault L, while the recharge to the deeper beta reservoir in this part of the field, seems to be only lateral, from the west and possibly south. 11 refs., 12 figs

Interaction of cold-water aquifers with exploited reservoirs of the Cerro Prieto geothermal system

Cerro Prieto geothermal reservoirs tend to exhibit good hydraulic communication with adjacent cool groundwater aquifers. Under natural state conditions the hot fluids mix with the surrounding colder waters along the margins of the geothermal system, or discharge to shallow levels by flowing up fault L. In response to exploitation reservoir pressures decrease, leading to changes in the fluid flow pattern in the system and to groundwater influx. The various Cerro Prieto reservoirs have responded differently to production, showing localized near-well or generalized boiling, depending on their access to cool-water recharge. Significant cooling by dilution with groundwater has only been observed in wells located near the edges of the field. In general, entry of cool water at Cerro Prieto is beneficial because it tends to maintain reservoir pressures, restrict boiling, and lengthen the life and productivity of wells. 15 refs., 10 figs., 1 tab

Preliminary reservoir engineering studies of the Miravalles geothermal field, Costa Rica

The Earth Sciences Division of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in cooperation with the Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad is conducting a reservoir engineering study of the Miravalles geothermal field, Costa Rica. Using data from eight exploration wells a two-dimensional areal, natural-state model of Miravalles has been developed. The model was calibrated by fitting the observed temperature and pressure distributions and requires a geothermal upflow zone in the northern part of the field, associated with the Miravalles volcano and an outflow towards the south. The total hot (about 260[degrees]C) water recharge is 130 kg/s, corresponding to a thermal input of about 150 MWt. On the basis of the natural-state model a two-dimensional exploitation model was develope. The field has a production area of about 10 km[sup 2], with temperatures exceeding 220[degrees]C. The model indicated that power generation of 55 MWe can be maintained for 30 years, with or without injection of the separated geothermal brine. Generation of 110 MWe could be problematic. Until more information becomes available on the areal extent of the field and the properties of the reservoir rocks, especially their relative permeability characteristics, it is difficult to ascertain if 110 MWe can be sustained during a 30-year period

The Ahuachapan geothermal field, El Salvador: Exploitation model, performance predictions, economic analysis

The Earth Sciences Division of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL) is conducting a reservoir evaluation study of the Ahuachapan geothermal field in El Salvador. This work is being performed in cooperation with the Comision Ejecutiva Hidroelectrica del Rio Lempa (CEL) and the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) with funding from the US Agency for International Development (USAID). This appendix to the report describes the work done during the second year of the study (FY89--90). The first year's report included (1) the development of geological and conceptual models of the field, (2) the evaluation of the reservoir's initial thermodynamic and chemical conditions and their changes during exploitation, (3) the evaluation of interference test data and the observed reservoir pressure decline and (4) the development of a natural state model for the field. In these appendices the results of reservoir engineering studies to evaluate different production-injection scenarios for the Ahuachapan geothermal field are discussed. The purpose of the work was to evaluate possible reservoir management options to enhance as well as to maintain the productivity of the field during a 30-year period (1990--2020). The ultimate objective was to determine the feasibility of increasing the electrical power output at Ahuachapan from the current level of about 50 MW{sub e} to the total installed capacity of 95 MW{sub e}. the flow rate and flowing enthalpy are shown for 1975--1990 and extrapolated out to 2015. Future temperature distributions are predicted