Menthol cigarette smoking and nicotine dependence

Since tobacco use is driven by dependence on nicotine, the primary addictive substance in tobacco, much research has focused on nicotine dependence. Less well understood, however, is the role that menthol plays in nicotine dependence. This review seeks to examine what role, if any, menthol plays in nicotine addiction in adults and youth. Based on research examining several indicators of heaviness of nicotine addiction, including time to first cigarette upon waking, night waking to smoke, as well as some other indications of dependence, it is suggested that menthol cigarette smokers are more heavily dependent on nicotine. Although other indicators of nicotine dependence, including number of cigarettes per day and the Fagerstrom Test of Nicotine Dependence, failed to consistently differentiate menthol and non-menthol smokers, these indicators are thought to be less robust than time to first cigarette. Therefore, though limited, the existing literature suggests that menthol smokers may be more dependence on nicotine

The Swiss Rationale of Integration Policies ::Balancing Federalism, Consociationalism and Direct Democracy

The following chapter summaries from an historical perspective recent developments of Swiss migration policy with a particular focus to the challenges given by the federal system and direct democracy on the local level of integration policy. It starts with a comprehensive historical summary on the rationales of immigration to Switzerland and continues with an institutional analysis of Swiss migration policies, setting the focus on federalism, consociationalism and direct democracy, and the consequences for the local actors. The authors highlight examples of current local initiatives, due to the absence of in-depths studies on the effectiveness and the impact of these policies on the local level. Thus, it follows a short overview based on the first study on migration and public opinion on migrants. Finally, the article concludes with remarks on the current integration framework with a particular emphasis on the cantonal and municipal actors, suggesting more studies to be done in the future with regard to local integration policies