Colloidal interactions in an alternate make cheese : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, (Manawatū), New Zealand

The role of emulsion structure and interactions on the material and technical functionality of an alternate make cheese (AMC) was investigated. Lab scale cheese samples (25 g comprising 23 wt.% fat and 20 wt.%) were prepared by recombining model emulsions with a separate protein phase under controlled temperature, shear speed and residence time in a rapid visco analyser (RVA). Sodium caseinate and Tween 20 were used respectively to stabilize fat globules for the model emulsions. Preliminary experiments were carried out for samples prepared using either calcium caseinate or sodium caseinate as protein phase. Structural characterisation of samples showed emulsion structure and distribution within these phases to be dependent on protein type. It was inferred that the calcium from calcium caseinate matrix modified the interfacial layer of the emulsions stabilised by sodium caseinate, as indicated by the increased fat globule size distribution after cheese making. In comparison, the size of fat globules covered with sodium caseinate appeared relatively stable in cheese produced form cheese curd. Based on these observations, caseinates were subsequently replaced by cheese curd as the protein phase for the remainder of the study. For cheese samples prepared with low fat cheese curd, fat droplets stabilised with sodium caseinate were hypothesised as binding with the surrounding protein matrix, and thereby these fat globules could be considered as ‘active fillers’. Confocal laser scanning microscopy supported this hypothesis showing homogeneously dispersed fat droplets within the protein network. This emulsion system did not show fat-protein phase separation in baking (170 °C 10 minutes) as droplets were prevented from coalescing as a consequence of entrapment within the protein phase. Fat globules covered with Tween 20 were hypothesised as behaving as ‘inactive fillers’, with the adsorbed layer not anticipated to form bonds with the surrounding protein network. Confocal and scanning electron microscopy instead showed localised domains of fat droplets within the protein structure that underwent partial coalescence on cooling of the cheese after manufacture. Cheeses comprising Tween stabilised droplets exhibited phase separation on baking and visible oil-off on the surface of cheese arising from extensive coalescence taking place within the localised regions of fat due to melting of the partially coalesced structures. Additional rheological analysis of cheeses was carried out to determine the effect of droplet-protein interactions on the material properties of the cheese samples. Notably, findings were presented in relation to a non-fat control cheese. Findings showed that, at temperatures below 30 °C when fat was crystallized, both inactive and active fillers had a higher relative modulus to the non-fat sample. However, at elevated temperature without fat crystals, inactive fillers resulted in a relative reduction in storage modulus when compared to the non-fat cheese, while active fillers increased relative storage modulus. Model cheeses prepared with either sodium caseinate or Tween 20 stabilised emulsions were then compared to cheese samples comprising non-homogenised cream as the emulsion phase. Structural analysis of samples determined that cheeses comprising fat globules stabilized with native milk fat globule membrane behaved in a manner analogous to samples prepared with the Tween stabilised emulsion, indicating the presence of inactive droplets. However, it was also observed that increasing the residence time of cheese production within the RVA caused a transition of the interaction behaviour of the emulsion from inactive to active, as evidenced by corresponding changes to structural, material and functional properties of the cheese. Further exploration of this transition determined that the mechanical work applied during cheese preparation was sufficient to homogenise fat droplets during extended shearing, resulting in a reduction to fat droplet size. Droplet homogenisation during shearing was also found to have disrupted the native milk fat globule membrane, allowing protein adsorption to take place. It was also determined that whey proteins were the predominant interfacial fraction adsorbed as a consequence of extended shearing, and were considered responsible for the transition of droplets from inactive to active. Combined findings have shown that the material and functional properties of an alternate make cheese composition could be strongly influenced by the interactions of the emulsion phase with the surrounding protein network. These interactions could, in turn, be manipulated through formulation and/or process design, providing greater control over product properties

Phenotypic Plasticity and the Invasiveness of Three _Taraxacum_ Species

*Background/Question/Methods* 
Many factors have been found to be associated with the success of invasive species. Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of a plant genotype to respond to different environmental conditions by producing different phenotypes, is thought to play an important role plant invasions. In three major experiments, I tested the hypothesis that the invasive _Taraxacum officinale_ (common dandelion) and its non-invasive congener _T. laevigatum_ will exhibit different phenotypic plasticity in germination, growth, and reproduction. I also proposed that their responses to various environments could be used to assess the invasive behavior of a potential crop species: _T. kok-saghyz_.

*Results/Conclusions* 
The results revealed complicated responses of the three species in various environments. The invasive _T. officinale_ showed higher germination in high alternating temperature, and accumulated more biomass than the non-invasive _T. laevigatum_ in favorable greenhouse conditions. Surprisingly, _T. laevigatum_ germinated better than _T. officinale_ in other stressful environments (dark, low water potential, long aging period), and also exhibited higher fecundity in favorable greenhouse conditions. In field experiments, however, the performance of _T. officinale_ was overwhelmingly better than _T. laevigatum_, which suffered very high mortality and failed to survive for more than two growing seasons. These results suggest that _T. officinale_ might benefit from its ability to grow, reproduce, and survive in various environments, while _T. laevigatum_ relies on seed reproduction to maintain its population. With the exception of germination, the responses of _T. kok-saghyz_ were more like _T. officinale_ than _T. laevigatum_, which suggested that this species has some potential to behave as a weed

Career Services as a Bridge to International Student Acculturation and Success

The recruitment of international students is a current trend in United States postsecondary institutional development. How to support international students as best as possible is highly related to the retention of international students. This article will explore how career services offices help international students better integrate academically and culturally. Additionally, this paper will discuss career services’ impact on the retention of international students and institutional long-term development

Higher Education and External Communities: Interconnectedness and Interdependence

Higher education institutions interact closely with a multitude of external communities. The diversity and multitude of communities have resulted in new relationships within higher education stakeholders. These relationships have ranged from local, regional, national, and international discourses. It has led to internal and external functions. Internal functions, including teaching and research, apply to work-based industry and affect the external functions of economic and societal change. Taking the initiative to reach out to communities will create fundamental social change, take on civic engagement and warrant the necessity that teaching and research hold the public accountable and adjust to societal needs. Market-based societal changes reconstruct the context of higher education and mandate that academic teaching and research be responsive to societal needs. The academic pursuits and entrepreneurship of higher education are intertwined as higher education and communities are interconnected and interdependent

Phenotypic Plasticity and the Invasiveness of Three Taraxacum Species

Many factors have been found to be associated with the success of invasive species. Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of a plant genotype to respond to different environmental conditions by producing different phenotypes, is thought to play an important role plant invasions. In three major experiments, I tested the hypothesis that the invasive Taraxacum officinale (common dandelion) and its non-invasive congener T. laevigatum will exhibit different phenotypic plasticity in germination, growth, and reproduction. I also proposed that their responses to various environments could be used to assess the invasive behavior of a potential crop species: T. kok-saghyz. The results revealed complicated responses of the three species in various environments. The invasive T. officinale showed higher germination in high alternating temperature, and accumulated more biomass than the non-invasive T. laevigatum in favorable greenhouse conditions. Surprisingly, T. laevigatum germinated better than T. officinale in other stressful environments (dark, low water potential, long aging period), and also exhibited higher fecundity in favorable greenhouse conditions. In field experiments, however, the performance of T. officinale was overwhelmingly better than T. laevigatum, which suffered very high mortality and failed to survive for more than two growing seasons. These results suggest that T. officinale might benefit from its ability to grow, reproduce, and survive in various environments, while T. laevigatum relies on seed reproduction to maintain its population. With the exception of germination, the responses of T. kok-saghyz were more like T. officinale than T. laevigatum, which suggested that this species has some potential to behave as a weed

FAST ECONOMIC GROWTH WITH HIGH INEQUALITY: WHY IS MAINLAND CHINA DIFFERENT FROM TAIWAN, CHINA?

This thesis was dedicated to explain mainland China’s fast economic growth and high inequality from the approach of economic transition and to answer the question why economic transitions contrast in mainland China and Taiwan. Combined with both qualitative and quantitative strategies, and based on secondary data as well as official statistics, the thesis chose comparative study as research design. After two comparative studies, this thesis found that mainland China is also a model of agricultural-development-led industrialization as Taiwan, which largely contributed to the fast economic growth; and yet uneven economic transition among provinces in mainland China resulted in serious intra-rural and national inequality

Short-term Traffic Flow Prediction Method in Bayesian Networks Based on Quantile Regression

With the popularization of intelligent transportation system and Internet of vehicles, the traffic flow data on the urban road network can be more easily obtained in large quantities. This provides data support for shortterm traffic flow prediction based on real-time data. Of all the challenges and difficulties faced in the research of short-term traffic flow prediction, this paper intends to address two: one is the difficulty of short-term traffic flow prediction caused by spatiotemporal correlation of traffic flow changes between upstream and downstream intersections; the other is the influence of deviation of traffic flow caused by abnormal conditions on short-term traffic flow prediction. This paper proposes a Bayesian network short-term traffic flow prediction method based on quantile regression. By this method the trouble caused by spatiotemporal correlation of traffic flow prediction could be effectively and efficiently solved. At the same time, the prediction of traffic flow change under abnormal conditions has higher accuracy