Balancing our energy portfolio

• Scotland is set to lose over half its current electricity generating capacity due to closure of the coal-fired and nuclear power stations. • Scotland will then become a net importer of electricity generated from England and Wales. • Under current UK policy, Scotland’s imported power will come from the proposed new fleet of nuclear power stations and from existing gas-fired power stations. • Reducing Scottish and UK coal consumption to meet carbon targets may increase gas consumption for power production. • The options for meeting future demand are: reducing demand, increasing onshore energy production, increasing offshore production; and increasing imports. • Decisions have to be made on how to meet future energy requirements and what level of energy security risk is acceptable. • Public education and debate is essential to avoid crisis decision-makin

Increasing the quality of seismic interpretation

Acknowledgments E. Macrae was funded by an NERC Open CASE Ph.D. award (NE/F013728/1) with Midland Valley Exploration Ltd. as the industry partner. We thank 763 geoscientists for their participation, and in particular, the REs who gave their time freely to the project. M. Scott (University of Glasgow, UK) is thanked for assisting with the statistical analysis. Four reviewers are thanked for their constructive comments that improved the manuscript.Peer reviewedPublisher PD

MEMS sensor-based monitoring system for engineered geological disposal facilities

The design of a novel MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical System) sensor-based monitoring system is presented in this article for the in-situ monitoring of the conditions (temperature, relative humidity) of an engineered bentonite barrier for the underground disposal of radioactive waste in a geological disposal facility (GDF). A first prototype of the monitoring system incorporating multiple state-of-the-art MEMS sensors has been developed on a PCB-based (Printed Circuit Board) structure, in order to measure the variation of temperature and relative humidity inside a cylindrical bentonite block during the hydration process. The monitoring system comprises of separate sensor boards, the microcontroller-equipped interface board, and the software user interface in Labview environment. One of the main design priorities is to reduce the size of the embedded sensors in order to minimize their influence on the hydro-mechanical response of the bentonite block. The sensor boards are encapsulated in different manners to protect them from moisture, chemical corrosion and mechanical shocks. The sensor system has been tested and calibrated in the temperature range between -20°C and 120°C, and at different relative humidity levels implemented by saturated salt solutions in enclosed containers. Test results demonstrate that the sensors have shown good functionality and robustness in harsh test environments such as high temperature and high humidity. Both temperature and relative humidity sensors have shown satisfactory precision level and temporal stability, which are in good accordance with the design specification of these devices

Scale-dependent influence of pre-existing basement shear zones on rift faulting : a case study from NE Brazil

Rifting of continental crust initiates faults that are commonly influenced by pre-existing structures. We document newly identified faults cutting Precambrian units in the interior of the NE Brazilian margin to assess the effects of structural inheritance on both rift geometry and fault architecture. Stratigraphic and structural data indicate that the faults were active in the main phase of rifting of Gondwana. The influence of pre-existing structures on the Mesozoic rift faulting is scale dependent. Regionally, the faults trend parallel to subvertical, crustal-scale Brasiliano (c. 750–540 Ma) shear zones. Mylonitic foliations and broadly distributed low strain in the lower crust indicated by shear-wave splitting controlled the overall orientation and kinematics of the rift faults. However, outcrop observations of the faults show that at scales up to hundreds of metres, mylonitic foliations have little influence on fault architectures. Faults cross-cut shear zones and do not commonly utilize foliation planes as shear fractures. Instead, slip zones and fractures have a range of orientations that form acute angles to the local foliation orientation. This observation explains the range of focal mechanisms associated with seismicity that coincides with ancient shear zones in intra-continental areas

The relationship between information processing style and information seeking, and its moderation by affect and perceived usefulness: analysis vs. procrastination

We examined the relationship between information processing style and information seeking, and its moderation by anxiety and information utility. Information about Salmonella, a potentially commonplace disease, was presented to 2960 adults. Two types of information processing were examined: preferences for analytical or heuristic processing, and preferences for immediate or delayed processing. Information seeking was captured by measuring the number of additional pieces of information sought by participants. Preferences for analytical information processing were associated positively and directly with information seeking. Heuristic information processing was associated negatively and directly with information seeking. The positive relationship between preferences for delayed decision making and information seeking was moderated by anxiety and by information utility. Anxiety reduced the tendency to seek additional information. Information utility increased the likelihood of information seeking. The findings indicate that low levels of anxiety could prompt information seeking. However, information seeking occurred even when information was perceived as useful and sufficient, suggesting that it can be a form of procrastination rather than a useful contribution to effective decision making

Enlightening the European Debate : Environment, Energy and Climate

The environment, energy and climate are transboundary issues that require cooperative action to sustainably address. To meet our energy requirements, both the UK and Europe are heavily reliant on energy imports. As international concerns rise over the impacts of climate change and over increasing levels of geopolitical unrest, UK Government energy policy must balance the need for competitive energy prices, with the requirements to ensure security of supply and to achieve environmental sustainability. Much of the UK’s environmental policy and legislation derives from EU Directives. Some sectors of industry may argue that this imposes a burden on their business, whilst others may argue that it leads to stability of Government policies and that it enables long-term decision-making and investment. Environmental groups do contend that European Directives provide a much-needed safety net, to protect the environment over timescales longer than a UK electoral cycle. This safety net is particularly effective because the successful implementation of EU Directives must be evidenced, protecting the progress of these policies, particularly during periods of financial stress.As part of a larger grouping of countries, negotiations on the world stage (such as climate negotiations) can be conducted with more authority than would be possible as an individual country, since the countries represented by the EU collectively represent a larger proportion of the global population, and account for a larger proportion of consumption and emissions. Cross-European R&D projects have a wider geographical scope, cover a broader range of environments and draw upon a larger pool of skills and researchers than would be possible if projects were centred within a single country. Such projects are facilitated by a number of EU mechanisms– though it is possible that non-EU countries can gain access to EU research activities, e.g. through associate country status.The implications for energy, environment and climate, of a move to leave the European Union are not clear. It is clear, however, that environmental policy in the UK has historically been driven by European legislation, that the UK is deeply embedded within the European energy market, and that the UK (and European) economies are heavily reliant on energy imports. Whatever the UK decides, it is critical that improved energy security remains a Government priority, and that we adopt a move towards a fully integrated energy, environmental and climate policy

A mechanism for bentonite buffer erosion in a fracture with a naturally varying aperture

In the deep geological disposal of nuclear waste in crystalline rock, erosion of the bentonite buffer may occur during periods of glaciation. Previous researchers have examined the mechanism and rates of extrusion and erosion for purified montmorillonite samples in smooth planar fractures. In this paper, we investigate the influence of using as delivered MX-80 material (i.e. including accessory minerals) and a naturally varying aperture on bentonite erosion. A bespoke fracture flow cell was constructed for this purpose and flow through conducted with deionised water. Throughout the experiment, gravimetric analysis was undertaken on the effluent and the swelling pressure of the bentonite monitored. Quantitative image analysis of the extrusion process was also undertaken. When the swelling pressure data was analysed, alongside both the oscillations in erosion rate and the area of the accessory mineral ring, a two-stage mechanism governing the erosion process became apparent. Once an accessory mineral ring had formed at the edge of the extruded material, further increases in swelling pressure resulted in a breach in the accessory mineral ring, triggering an erosive period. During which, the mineral ring was supplemented with additional minerals. The cycle repeated until the ring was sufficiently strong that it remained intact. This observed process results in erosion rates one order of magnitude less than those currently used in long-term safety case calculations

Initiation and propagation of strain localization in cohesive soil using a novel miniature triaxial cell and X-ray Computed Tomography

Particle scale coupled hydro-mechanical interactions play a major role in clay macroscopic behavior and clay, like other geomaterials, deform in a localized manner (failure and strain localization), but conventional laboratory test measurements are made at the sample scale rather than at the local particle scale. Thus, understanding the micro-mechanisms underlying the initiation and propagation of strain localization in cohesive soil will form the foundation for quantitative prediction of strain localization in practical fine cohesive soil. In the last decade, soil microstructure has been intensively investigated thanks to in-situ microscopy technologies such as X-ray computed tomography (X-CT), which allows a 3D imaging of the sample microstructure without the need of dehydration. Nevertheless, this step forward in the general understanding of soil microstructure regarded exclusively sandy soils, as the limitation given by the X-CT maximum resolution (in the order of few microns) hinder the investigation of the micro-mechanisms in clayey soils, which generally, present a particle size lower than 2 microns and a pore space in the sub-micron range. In this study, a small amount (2%) of fine sand to silt-sized mica (average particle size of 90 micron, used here as strain markers) have been mixed with kaolinite clay (average particle size of 0.4 micron). Mica is mineralogically a clay and as clays it is platy in shape and electrically charged, notwithstanding particles are big enough to be clearly imaged with an X-CT at high resolution. A novel miniature triaxial compression cell (5 mm in diameter) has been manufactured in order to use the X-CT to image the in-situ soil microstructure upon undrained triaxial compression at different strain level. The cell was additionally instrumented with a high capacity tensiometer sensor to measure negative pore water pressure developed upon shear, therefore allowing mechanical comparison with macroscopic behaviour. A particle matching code was finally used to match mica particles in consecutive scans at the different strain levels and their kinematics computed. A conceptual model on particle configuration based on the strain localization evolution that has been observed will be presented

New approaches to the design of redox catalysts for use in immunohistochemical imaging

This thesis investigates potential classes of compound for use as immunohistochemical markers. A range of ligands and their corresponding metal complexes have been screened for their ability to catalytically reduce silver ions in a Timm's type reaction. Chapter two focuses on the preparation and testing of bidentate tertiary phosphine metal complexes. The functionalised ligands, l,2-bis-diphenylphosphino-4-methoxy- benzene, l-diphenylphosphino-2 (diphenylphosphino)-methyl -4-methoxybenzene and the corresponding platinum complexes have been prepared. Platinum complexes of 1,2- bis diphenylphosphinoethane were also synthesised. These platinum complexes were found to reduce the silver in times ranging from 5 minutes to in excess of 30 minutes. Chapter three focuses on the preparation of marker systems based on platinum and palladium complexes of weso-tetraarylporphyrins. 5,10,15,20-Tetra(4- hydroxyphenyl)porphyrin and 5,10,15 -tri-(4-tolyl)-20-(4-hydroxyphenyl)porphyrin have been prepared from the corresponding anisole and 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoic acid phenyl ester derivatives. A number of symmetrical and unsymmetrical porphyrins bearing aryl phosphate esters derived from diethyl-4-formylphenyl phosphate and diethyl-4-formyl-2- methoxyphenyl phosphate have been prepared. The reaction of 5,10,15,20-tetra-(4- hydroxyphenyl)porphyrin or 5,10,15,20-tetra-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)porphyrin with chloro diethylphosphate in the presence of either sodium hydride or triethylamine failed to afford the corresponding tetra-phosphorylated products. The reaction between 5,10,15,20- tetra-(4-hydroxyphenyl)porphyrin palladium and chlorodiethylphosphate in the presence of triethylamine afforded a mixture of phosphorylated products. None of the prepared complexes displayed the ability to reduce silver ions in a Timm's type reaction. Chapter four describes the design and synthesis of 4-phenyl-2,2':6',2"-terpyridines functionalised with a PEG chain terminating with a reactive group suitable for bio- conjugation. 4'- (2-(2- 2-(l,3-Dioxo-l,3-dihydro-isoindol-2-yl)-ethoxy -ethoxy)-ethoxy)- phenyl - 2,2':6',2"-terpyridine was prepared using two methods starting from either 4- hydroxybenzaldehyde or (4-hydroxyphenyl)-2,2':6',2"-terpyridine. Base hydrolysis converted the phthalimde moiety to the free amine which was subsequently treated with l,5-difluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene. This ligand was not water soluble. The addition of two morpholinomethyl pendent groups via a Mannich reaction did not dramatically increase the solubility in water. A number of transition metal complexes were prepared and tested. Chapter five presents a novel one-pot synthesis of 'mixed' 7V-arylated 1,4,7- triazacyclononane (tacn) ligands. Using this methodology tacn ligands functionalised with two nitrophenyl groups and either a benzaldehyde (L32a), benzoic acid (L32ba), benzyl ester (L32Benzyi), alcohol (L32Aic), tolyl (L32T) or napthoquinone (L32Q) groups have been prepared in yields ranging between 39 and 64 %. Hydrogenation of L32t afforded L32tr. Reaction with Ni(II) perchlorate afforded the air stable complex Nin(L32TR) C104 2, which was found to catalyse the reduction of aqueous silver ions via a Timm' type reaction in 3 minutes. Attempts to attach both a porphyrin and a terpyridine sub-unit are also presented

Laboratory testing of a MEMS sensor system for in-situ monitoring of the engineered barrier in a geological disposal facility

Geological disposal facilities for radioactive waste pose significant challenges for robust monitoring of environmental conditions within the engineered barriers that surround the waste canister. Temperatures are elevated, due to the presence of heat generating waste, relative humidity varies from 20% to 100%, and swelling pressures within the bentonite barrier can typically be 2-10 MPa. Here, we test the robustness of a bespoke design MEMS sensor-based monitoring system, which we encapsulate in polyurethane resin. We place the sensor within an oedometer cell and show that despite a rise in swelling pressure to 2 MPa, our relative humidity (RH) measurements are unaffected. We then test the sensing system against a traditional RH sensor, using saturated bentonite with a range of RH values between 50% and 100%. Measurements differ, on average, by 2.87% RH, and are particularly far apart for values of RH greater than 98%. However, bespoke calibration of the MEMS sensing system using saturated solutions of known RH, reduces the measurement difference to an average of 1.97% RH, greatly increasing the accuracy for RH values close to 100%