A preliminary survey of animal handling and cultural slaughter practices among Kenyan communities: Potential influence on meat quality

Kenya is composed of over 40 ethnic communities who practice varied methods of animal handling and slaughter. Socio-cultural and religious traditions have the potential to influence animal handling and slaughter practices. These influences have, however, not been documented in the literature as far as the author is aware. Also, the literature has documented the connection between the manner of animal treatment and meat quality, but this is rarely discussed in the literature in Kenya; this connection is important as it informs modern meat trade practices by Kenyans as they trade in the global arena. This survey aimed to mainly establish and document the animal slaughter practices among Kenyan communities, and, to also highlight any current provisions related to meeting modern animal welfare requirements, animal handling procedures in the meat trade and discuss their potential influence on meat quality available in commerce in Kenya. This preliminary study surveyed the slaughter practices among 10 different Kenyan communities through a semi-structured questionnaire, focus group discussions and individual interviews. The survey demonstrated that different Kenyan communities practice varied methods of animal slaughter depending on whether the animal being slaughtered is for public feasting, domestic consumption or commercial merchandizing. The Kenyan communities surveyed in this study depend mainly on males to slaughter livestock for females preparing it for domestic use using a number of instruments and methods. For small stock for domestic consumption, females may slaughter the animal except for Muslims whose males have to slaughter the animal with a special knife (a Khalef) according to Muslim rites to render it Halal. Large stock is invariably slaughtered by males irrespective of the community, and the manner of use of the carcass. Gender, age, religion, community and the size of the animal were the major determinants of the method of animal slaughter. The animal welfare issues highlighted in the survey and related to the handling and slaughter of livestock have important implications for meat quality during commercial merchandizing. There is an apparent need to provide education to herders, livestock handlers, employees and management in the livestock industry in Kenya on the relationship between animal welfare requirements, animal handling procedures and meat quality. Such awareness can potentially improve the quality and economic value of the meat available in commerce.Keywords: Kenya, animal welfare, handling, slaughter practices, meat qualit

Soybean nutritional properties: The good and the bad about soy foods consumption - A review.

Consumption of soy foods is increasing worldwide mainly due to their acclaimed health benefits. However, nutritional demerits associated with soy foods consumption exist. Proteins and lipids, some vitamins and minerals, are major nutritionallyimportant components of soybeans; carbohydrates are major constituents quantitatively. Whole soy foods are also good sources of dietary fibre, B-vitamins, calcium, and omega-3 essential fatty acids. This review examines the merits and demerits of consuming soy foods. The amino acid composition of soybean protein complements that of cereals. Also, the high biological value of soy proteins increases their value as feedstuff. Processing generally increases digestibility of soybean protein; soy protein concentrate and isolate have higher digestibility than soy flours. Trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors in flours lower protein digestibility. However, despite demonstrated growth inhibition in animals, due to antinutrients, methionine supplementation in infants is useful only when dietary protein intake is marginal. Although processing considerably reduces antinutrient levels, care must be taken not to reduce protein nutritional value by excessive heating, which can result in loss of thermolabile amino acids. Significant lowering of plasma cholesterol has been reported in hypercholesterolemic subjects with hyperlipoproteinemia, when soy protein replaced animal protein in diets. Also, a dose-response relationship has been shown with isoflavones, particularly genistein, in lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in human kinetic studies. However, questions are being raised about soy isoflavones, especially when consumed as concentrated supplements by segments of the population. Data suggest that genistein may prompt growth of breast tissue in male mice, while other data suggest the opposite effect. Studies also showed that infants consuming soy formula had higher blood levels of isoflavones than women receiving soy supplements who show menstrual cycle disturbances. Also, some animal and human study results have linked soy isoflavones to goitre. Nevertheless, data linking soy consumption to reduced risk of osteoporosis, prostate, breast and colon cancers exists, despite the data being inadequate to make definitive conclusions. Despite concerns on soy isoflavones, the FDA-sanctioned claim on soy protein, covers a component generally accepted as heart-healthy. Nevertheless, the need for more research is emerging as well as caution on soy foods inappropriate consumption. As Africa produces small but increasing amount of soybeans, it will continue relying on imports to meet demand. As demand for soy products increases worldwide, due to its health benefits, African consumers are advised to take note of emerging unhealthy side effects of consumption of large amounts of soy products.Key words: Soybean, nutrients, health benefits, demerit

Effects Of Processing On Soybean Nutrients And Potential Impact On Consumer Health: An Overview

Production of soybeans and consumption of soy products is increasing worldwide mainly due to acclaimed health benefits. Processing can alter soybean sensory appeal, nutritive value and potentially affect consumer health. This review of the literature examines these issues. Despite potential changes in nutritive value during processing, soy foods processing below 100°C for short periods, may not adversely affect nutritive value. However, heat inactivation of trypsin inhibitors, denaturation of soybean globulins and haemagglutenins, increases soy protein bioavailability. Excessive heating can impair nutritive value by making lysine unavailable, as serine, cystine and cysteine are converted to a dehydroprotein intermediate that reacts with lysine to form lysinoalanine. Tryptophan and methionine are also lost during excessive heating. The acylation reaction catalyzed by alkali, generates lysinoalanine, an unavailable and potentially toxic compound. In rats, ingestion of lysinoalanine results in diarrhoea, pancreatic hyperplasia, and loss of hair. At levels present in foods, protein-bound lysinoalanine does not cause nephrotoxicity in humans. Heat treatments at alkaline pH result in destruction of arginine, which is converted to ornithine, urea, citrulline and ammonia, while cysteine is converted into dehydroalanine. Serine, threonine and lysine are also reduced at alkaline pH. These conditions may be present during alkali refining of soy oil. Carbohydrates with free reducing groups react with carbonyl groups on proteins as part of the Maillard reaction. Heat treatments at alkaline pH and above 200°C cause isomerization of amino acids, leading to formation of racemic mixtures of L and D forms. Since D isomers have reduced bioavailability and some including D-proline are reported to be toxic, racemization of an essential amino acid reduces its nutritional value. Changes in lipids include oxidation, loss of lipid-soluble vitamins and change of fatty acids from cis to trans isomers. Autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids initiates free radical formation leading to destruction of unsaturated fatty acids, with potential reduction of essential fatty acid content. Oxidized lipid-protein interaction products are important precursors of atherosclerotic plaques in vivo. Carotenoids are lost on bleaching, thereby reducing Vitamin A potential. Vitamin E is lost during oil refining. Roasting and toasting have no effect on soy isoflavones, but organic solvents remove them, while fermentation increases their bioavailability. Dehulling reduces total mineral content but most soy minerals follow protein or meal, while sodium and potassium are lost in wash water. To minimize adverse changes, minimal washing, fermentation, reduction of hydrogenation temperature and thermal processing below 100oC for short periods, are recommended

Role Of Animal Meats In Cardiovascular Diseases With Reference To Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review

Although animal food products are important sources of dietary protein in the diets of many African communities, questions are being raised concerning the role of animal meats and other animal products in chronic diseases including cardiovascular diseases. This review of the literature was, therefore, conducted to provide information on the role of animal meats and their nutrients in cardiovascular diseases, with reference to sub-Saharan Africa. In sub-Saharan Africa, infectious diseases are the current commonest cause of death, but cardiovascular diseases are set to surpass them as the major cause of mortality and morbidity. Although rare in the past, there are indications that coronary heart disease will become a burden to the health care system in sub-Saharan Africa. Diet is an important part of the control and management of cardiovascular diseases as most risk factors including diabetes mellitus, obesity, low-density lipoprotein and triacylglycerol levels, alcohol and blood pressure are all connected to diet. Animal meats can be significant sources of dietary saturated fatty acids and cholesterol due to their considerable lipid content. Dietary saturated fatty acids and cholesterol are significant influences on the development and progression of atherosclerosis, a major type of cardiovascular disease. Heart disease and high serum cholesterol also increase the risk of stroke. Although dietary protein is considered to be of minor importance in the aetiology of cardiovascular disease, epidemiological studies have shown the consumption of animal protein to be positively correlated with cardiovascular disease incidence, while that of vegetable protein is negatively correlated with cardiovascular disease mortality rates. Also, due to the higher content of cholesterol in organ meats compared to skeletal muscles, it is recommended that their dietary consumption be limited. It, therefore, seems beneficial to reduce the dietary intake of saturated fatty acids and cholesterol from meats and other high-fat, high-cholesterol animal foods, except fatty fish, since it is established on the basis of documented scientific evidence that reduction in serum cholesterol results in reduction of coronary morbidity and mortality. This review, therefore, recommends reduction in the intake of fatty red animal meat, while promoting consumption of portion-controlled lean white meats such as poultry, wild game and fatty fish. This can be achieved by integrating these recommendations into food and nutritional policy practice in Africa

A Literature Review Of Role Of Obesity In Adult Health With Reference To Africa

Although obesity is a global epidemic that affects every socio-economic class, little is available in the literature on the status of the syndrome in Africa. This literature review was therefore written in order to highlight the causes, effects and potential mitigation measures of the syndrome with particular interest on the status of the condition in Africa. Obesity results from an incorrect energy balance leading to an increased store of energy, mainly as fat. The major factors that contribute to obesity include over-nutrition, physical inactivity, change of dietary habits, modernization, consumption of high fat, high carbohydrate foods, urbanization and in a minority of patients a physical condition or metabolic disturbance. Body mass index (BMI) is currently being used by competent authorities as an index of obesity. BMI differentiates classes of obesity, with class I, II and III being identified with BMI of ≥30 but <35, ≥35 but <40, and ≥40, respectively. A BMI of 18.5-25 is regarded as normal. However, it is sometimes difficult to differentiate obesity due to excess fat deposition and that due to muscle atrophy. Also, current procedures for estimating body fat percentage are not as accurate as they should and often give different results. Despite women tending to be more obese than men, they are less prone to hypertension, heart disease and type 2 diabetes than men before they reach menopause due to their fat deposition being predominantly sub-cutaneous rather than abdominal. In 2010, the WHO estimated that about 1.4 billion adults were overweight and obese, but 300-400 million were obese. The defining metabolic changes in obesity are decreased glucose tolerance, decreased sensitivity to insulin, hyperinsulinemia and reduced life expectancy. Obesity can be treated by restricting food intake and engaging in regular physical exercises. Other measures include the use of anorectic drugs and various forms of jejunoileostomy. Obesity is a controllable behavioural disorder, with regular exercise and sensible eating being the best ways to regulate body fat percentage and maintain a healthy body weight. As it is difficult to treat obesity, efforts should be directed towards prevention in order to keep it in check

Role Of Zinc In Human Health With Reference To African Elderly: A Review

This review of the literature was conducted to assess dietary zinc intake among the African elderly, discuss the potential impact of current levels of zinc intake on their health, and to recommend strategies for improving their dietary zinc intake. As zinc plays an ubiquitous role in human metabolism, determination of its dietary intake among African elderly is important from a health standpoint, if the consequences of widely reported deficiency are to be mitigated. Animal meats and seafood are rich sources of zinc, with nuts and legumes being relatively good plant sources. Zinc bioavailability is relatively higher in animal foods due to absence of inhibitors of zinc absorption and the presence of cysteine and methionine, which improve its absorption. Zinc in plant-based foods is less bioavailable for human metabolism due to presence of chelators, phytates and dietary fibre, which inhibit absorption. Individuals at the greatest risk of zinc deficiency include infants and children, pregnant and lactating women, patients being fed intravenously, malnourished individuals including those with protein-energy malnutrition and anorexia nervosa; others are individuals with chronic or persistent diarrhoea, malabsorption syndromes, those with alcoholic liver disease, sickle cell anemia, strict vegetarians, and the elderly aged 60 years and over. A reduced capacity to absorb zinc, increases the likelihood of disease states that may adversely alter zinc utilization, and increased use of drugs that increase zinc excretion, may all contribute to increased risk of mild to moderate zinc deficiency in the elderly. Also, in situations of diminished access to adequate and balanced diets, health care and good sanitation, the likelihood of developing mild to moderate zinc deficiency is high among poor African elderly. Due to the consequences of impaired immune system function in zinc deficiency in the elderly, it is critical to maintain an adequate zinc intake by this group. Despite mild zinc deficiency being unlikely to lead to severe zinc deficiency in individuals without a genetic disorder, zinc malabsorption or conditions of increased zinc loss such as severe burns can also result in mild to severe zinc deficiency. Diets for poor African children, pregnant and lactating women, and the elderly, are deficient in zinc. This is mainly due to low food intake, relatively lower intake of animal foods and high phytate and fibre content of the staple plant-based foods. Fortification of staples and inclusion of inexpensive and available animal protein sources, in plant-based diets for the elderly can increase their dietary zinc intake

Nutritional composition and shelflife of the lake victoria nile perch (Lates niloticus) stored in ice.

Nile perch, the most important commercial fish species from the Lake Victoria fishery, contributes about 67% of Kenya’s total annual fish export earnings. Despite the Nile perch being an important foreign exchange earner, little information is available on its nutritional composition and shelf life on ice, information that is necessary for the development of methods to maintain its freshness, especially in view of the occasional rejection of exports of Nile perch products by the European Union.This study was, therefore, conducted using a set of physicochemical parameters to follow its deterioration profile in order to estimate its shelf life and freshness in the course of storage. These sensory parameters were correlated with selected biochemical and microbiological parameters to assess the suitability of the quality index scheme developed to determine the quality and shelf life of the iced Nile perch in the course of storage. The protein, lipid, moisture and ash contents were determined. The pH, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN), TMAO and free fatty acids(FFA) contents were the biochemical parameters studied, while total viable counts (TVC) and hydrogen sulphide producing bacterial counts were the microbiological parameters studied at the various stages of storage. The results showed that protein in the edible tissue of the Nile perch varied significantly (p0.05). The sensory characteristics selected for the quality index scheme increased from 3.3 demerit points to 18.1 points (out of 20) at the point of rejection by a sensory panel. The TVBN increased from 8.4±0.7 mgN/100g to 26.0±0.9 mgN/ 100g at the point of rejection. No TMAO was detected. The %FFA increased from 1.9 to 2.7% at the point of rejection, while the TVC and hydrogen sulphide producing bacterial counts increased from 6.6 log cfu/g to 8.0 log cfu/g and 4.3 log cfu/g to 7.3 log cfu/g, respectively. The study established that the ungutted iced Nile perch handled under normal conditions in this fishery with a delay of 3-4hours before icing, had shelf life of 22 days, while the control which was iced on board had a shelf life of 28 days. The study is significant in designing programmes for reducing post harvest losses of this fish in the Lake Victoria fishery

Nutritional Composition And Shelflife Of The Lake Victoria Nile Perch ( Lates Niloticus ) Stored In Ice

Nile perch, the most important commercial fish species from the Lake Victoria fishery, contributes about 67% of Kenya’s total annual fish export earnings. Despite the Nile perch being an important foreign exchange earner, little information is available on its nutritional composition and shelf life on ice, information that is necessary for the development of methods to maintain its freshness, especially in view of the occasional rejection of exports of Nile perch products by the European Union. This study was, therefore, conducted using a set of physicochemical parameters to follow its deterioration profile in order to estimate its shelf life and freshness in the course of storage. These sensory parameters were correlated with selected biochemical and microbiological parameters to assess the suitability of the quality index scheme developed to determine the quality and shelf life of the iced Nile perch in the course of storage. The protein, lipid, moisture and ash contents were determined. The pH, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN), TMAO and free fatty acids (FFA) contents were the biochemical parameters studied, while total viable counts (TVC) and hydrogen sulphide producing bacterial counts were the microbiological parameters studied at the various stages of storage. The results showed that protein in the edible tissue of the Nile perch varied significantly (p<0.05) between 19.8 and 17.7%; the lipid, ash and moisture contents which varied between 0.59 and 0.63%, 0.55 and 0.63%, and 78.5 and 79.5%, respectively, were not significantly related to storage time (p>0.05). The sensory characteristics selected for the quality index scheme increased from 3.3 demerit points to 18.1 points (out of 20) at the point of rejection by a sensory panel. The TVBN increased from 8.4±0.7 mgN/100g to 26.0±0.9 mgN/ 100g at the point of rejection. No TMAO was detected. The %FFA increased from 1.9 to 2.7% at the point of rejection, while the TVC and hydrogen sulphide producing bacterial counts increased from 6.6 log cfu/g to 8.0 log cfu/g and 4.3 log cfu/g to 7.3 log cfu/g, respectively. The study established that the ungutted iced Nile perch handled under normal conditions in this fishery with a delay of 3-4 hours before icing, had shelf life of 22 days, while the control which was iced on board had a shelf life of 28 days. The study is significant in designing programmes for reducing post harvest losses of this fish in the Lake Victoria fishery