Precise estimation of tropospheric path delays with GPS techniques

Tropospheric path delays are a major source of error in deep space tracking. However, the tropospheric-induced delay at tracking sites can be calibrated using measurements of Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites. A series of experiments has demonstrated the high sensitivity of GPS to tropospheric delays. A variety of tests and comparisons indicates that current accuracy of the GPS zenith tropospheric delay estimates is better than 1-cm root-mean-square over many hours, sampled continuously at intervals of six minutes. These results are consistent with expectations from covariance analyses. The covariance analyses also indicate that by the mid-1990s, when the GPS constellation is complete and the Deep Space Network is equipped with advanced GPS receivers, zenith tropospheric delay accuracy with GPS will improve further to 0.5 cm or better

A demonstration of high precision GPS orbit determination for geodetic applications

High precision orbit determination of Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites is a key requirement for GPS-based precise geodetic measurements and precise low-earth orbiter tracking, currently under study at JPL. Different strategies for orbit determination have been explored at JPL with data from a 1985 GPS field experiment. The most successful strategy uses multi-day arcs for orbit determination and includes fine tuning of spacecraft solar pressure coefficients and station zenith tropospheric delays using the GPS data. Average rms orbit repeatability values for 5 of the GPS satellites are 1.0, 1.2, and 1.7 m in altitude, cross-track, and down-track componenets when two independent 5-day fits are compared. Orbit predictions up to 24 hours outside the multi-day arcs agree within 4 m of independent solutions obtained with well tracked satellites in the prediction interval. Baseline repeatability improves with multi-day as compared to single-day arc orbit solutions. When tropospheric delay fluctuations are modeled with process noise, significant additional improvement in baseline repeatability is achieved. For a 246-km baseline, with 6-day arc solutions for GPS orbits, baseline repeatability is 2 parts in 100 million (0.4-0.6 cm) for east, north, and length components and 8 parts in 100 million for the vertical component. For 1314 and 1509 km baselines with the same orbits, baseline repeatability is 2 parts in 100 million for the north components (2-3 cm) and 4 parts in 100 million or better for east, length, and vertical components

Determination of GPS orbits to submeter accuracy

Orbits for satellites of the Global Positioning System (GPS) were determined with submeter accuracy. Tests used to assess orbital accuracy include orbit comparisons from independent data sets, orbit prediction, ground baseline determination, and formal errors. One satellite tracked 8 hours each day shows rms error below 1 m even when predicted more than 3 days outside of a 1-week data arc. Differential tracking of the GPS satellites in high Earth orbit provides a powerful relative positioning capability, even when a relatively small continental U.S. fiducial tracking network is used with less than one-third of the full GPS constellation. To demonstrate this capability, baselines of up to 2000 km in North America were also determined with the GPS orbits. The 2000 km baselines show rms daily repeatability of 0.3 to 2 parts in 10 to the 8th power and agree with very long base interferometry (VLBI) solutions at the level of 1.5 parts in 10 to the 8th power. This GPS demonstration provides an opportunity to test different techniques for high-accuracy orbit determination for high Earth orbiters. The best GPS orbit strategies included data arcs of at least 1 week, process noise models for tropospheric fluctuations, estimation of GPS solar pressure coefficients, and combine processing of GPS carrier phase and pseudorange data. For data arc of 2 weeks, constrained process noise models for GPS dynamic parameters significantly improved the situation

Subnanosecond GPS-based clock synchronization and precision deep-space tracking

Interferometric spacecraft tracking is accomplished by the Deep Space Network (DSN) by comparing the arrival time of electromagnetic spacecraft signals at ground antennas separated by baselines on the order of 8000 km. Clock synchronization errors within and between DSN stations directly impact the attainable tracking accuracy, with a 0.3-nsec error in clock synchronization resulting in an 11-nrad angular position error. This level of synchronization is currently achieved by observing a quasar which is angularly close to the spacecraft just after the spacecraft observations. By determining the differential arrival times of the random quasar signal at the stations, clock offsets and propagation delays within the atmosphere and within the DSN stations are calibrated. Recent developments in time transfer techniques may allow medium accuracy (50-100 nrad) spacecraft tracking without near-simultaneous quasar-based calibrations. Solutions are presented for a worldwide network of Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers in which the formal errors for DSN clock offset parameters are less than 0.5 nsec. Comparisons of clock rate offsets derived from GPS measurements and from very long baseline interferometry (VLBI), as well as the examination of clock closure, suggest that these formal errors are a realistic measure of GPS-based clock offset precision and accuracy. Incorporating GPS-based clock synchronization measurements into a spacecraft differential ranging system would allow tracking without near-simultaneous quasar observations. The impact on individual spacecraft navigation-error sources due to elimination of quasar-based calibrations is presented. System implementation, including calibration of station electronic delays, is discussed

Application of GPS tracking techniques to orbit determination for TDRS

In this paper, we evaluate two fundamentally different approaches to TDRS orbit determination utilizing Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and GPS-related techniques. In the first, a GPS flight receiver is deployed on the TDRSS spacecraft. The TDRS ephemerides are determined using direct ranging to the GPS spacecraft, and no ground network is required. In the second approach, the TDRSS spacecraft broadcast a suitable beacon signal, permitting the simultaneous tracking of GPS and TDRSS satellites from a small ground network. Both strategies can be designed to meet future operational requirements for TDRS-2 orbit determination

Temporal Characterization of Homology-Independent Centromere Coupling in Meiotic Prophase

Background: Over the past thirty years several reports of the pairing or association of non-homologous centromeres during meiotic prophase have appeared in the literature. Recently, the homology-independent pairwise association of centromeres, termed centromere coupling, was also reported in budding yeast. It seems paradoxical that centromeres would pair with non-homologous partners during a process intended to align homologous chromosomes, yet the conservation of this phenomenon across a wide range of species suggests it may play an important role in meiosis. Principal Findings: To better define the role of this phenomenon in budding yeast, experiments were preformed to place centromere coupling within the context of landmark meiotic events. Soon after the initiation of the meiotic program, centromeres were found to re-organize from a single cluster into non-homologous couples. Centromere coupling is detected as soon as chromosome replication is finished and persists while the recombination protein Dmc1 is loaded onto the chromosomes, suggesting that centromere coupling persists through the time of double strand break formation. In the absence of the synaptonemal complex component, Zip1, centromere coupling was undetectable, at all times examined, confirming the essential role of this protein on this process. Finally, the timely release of centromere coupling depends on the recombination-initiating enzyme, Spo11, suggesting a connection between events in homologous pairing/ recombination and the regulation of centromere coupling

Use of global positioning system measurements to determine geocentric coordinates and variations in Earth orientation

Geocentric tracking station coordinates and short-period Earth-orientation variations can be measured with Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements. Unless calibrated, geocentric coordinate errors and changes in Earth orientation can lead to significant deep-space tracking errors. Ground-based GPS estimates of daily and subdaily changes in Earth orientation presently show centimeter-level precision. Comparison between GPS-estimated Earth-rotation variations, which are the differences between Universal Time 1 and Universal Coordinated Time (UT1-UTC), and those calculated from ocean tide models suggests that observed subdaily variations in Earth rotation are dominated by oceanic tidal effects. Preliminary GPS estimates for the geocenter location (from a 3-week experiment) agree with independent satellite laser-ranging estimates to better than 10 cm. Covariance analysis predicts that temporal resolution of GPS estimates for Earth orientation and geocenter improves significantly when data collected from low Earth-orbiting satellites as well as from ground sites are combined. The low Earth GPS tracking data enhance the accuracy and resolution for measuring high-frequency global geodynamical signals over time scales of less than 1 day

A demonstration of unified TDRS/GPS tracking and orbit determination

We describe results from an experiment in which TDRS and GPS satellites were tracked simultaneously from a small (3 station) ground network in the western United States. We refer to this technique as 'GPS-like tracking' (GLT) since the user satellite - in this case TDRS - is essentially treated as a participant in the GPS constellation. In the experiment, the TDRS K(sub space-to-ground link (SGL) was tracked together with GPS L-band signals in enhanced geodetic-quality GPS receivers (TurboRogue). The enhanced receivers simultaneously measured and recorded both the TDRS SGL and the GPS carrier phases with sub-mm precision, enabling subsequent precise TDRS orbit determination with differential GPS techniques. A small number of calibrated ranging points from routine operations at the TDRS ground station (White Sands, NM) were used to supplement the GLT measurements in order to improve determination of the TDRS longitude. Various tests performed on TDRS ephemerides derived from data collected during this demonstration - including comparisons with the operational precise orbit generated by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center - provide evidence that the TDRS orbits have been determined to better than 25 m with the GLT technique

Synthesis-Dependent Strand Annealing in Meiosis

Recent studies led to the proposal that meiotic gene conversion can result after transient engagement of the donor chromatid and subsequent DNA synthesis-dependent strand annealing (SDSA). Double Holliday junction (dHJ) intermediates were previously proposed to form both reciprocal crossover recombinants (COs) and noncrossover recombinants (NCOs); however, dHJs are now thought to give rise mainly to COs, with SDSA forming most or all NCOs. To test this model in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we constructed a random spore system in which it is possible to identify a subset of NCO recombinants that can readily be accounted for by SDSA, but not by dHJ-mediated recombination. The diagnostic class of recombinants is one in which two markers on opposite sides of a double-strand break site are converted, without conversion of an intervening heterologous insertion located on the donor chromatid. This diagnostic class represents 26% of selected NCO recombinants. Tetrad analysis using the same markers provided additional evidence that SDSA is a major pathway for NCO gene conversion in meiosis

A review of GPS-based tracking techniques for TDRS orbit determination

This article evaluates two fundamentally different approaches to the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) orbit determination utilizing Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and GPS-related techniques. In the first, a GPS flight receiver is deployed on the TDRS. The TDRS ephemerides are determined using direct ranging to the GPS spacecraft, and no ground network is required. In the second approach, the TDRS's broadcast a suitable beacon signal, permitting the simultaneous tracking of GPS and Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System satellites by ground receivers. Both strategies can be designed to meet future operational requirements for TDRS-II orbit determination