The influence of personality traits in predicting information processing and message persuasiveness

Gray‘s (2000) revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) was used to investigate personality effects on information processing biases to gain-framed and loss-framed anti-speeding messages and the persuasiveness of these messages. The r-RST postulates that behaviour is regulated by two major motivational systems: reward system or punishment system. It was hypothesised that both message processing and persuasiveness would be dependent upon an individual‘s sensitivity to reward or punishment. Student drivers (N = 133) were randomly assigned to view one of four anti-speeding messages or no message (control group). Individual processing differences were then measured using a lexical decision task, prior to participants completing a personality and persuasion questionnaire. Results indicated that participants who were more sensitive to reward showed a marginally significant (p = .050) tendency to report higher intentions to comply with the social gain-framed message and demonstrate a cognitive processing bias towards this message, than those with lower reward sensitivity

Factors influencing the effectiveness of advertising countermeasures in road safety

The current program of research contributes to the World Health Organisation's (WHO, 2004) recent call to pool global resources in the attempt to uncover the most effective countermeasures and polices for the prevention of road trauma. Specifically, this program of research investigates the persuasive outcomes of different emotional health messages in an important applied context, road safety. In this context the use of negative, fear-based approaches has predominated with limited use of more positive-based approaches such as humorous- or pride-based emotional appeals. The overarching aim of the current research program was to examine the effectiveness (i.e., persuasiveness) of positive and negative emotional appeals and, specifically, the issue- or message-relevant affect that such appeals evoke. An additional aim was to ascertain the relative influence and effectiveness of positive and negative emotional appeals for specific target audiences. Particular attention was given to the effectiveness of such messages for males, a high risk road user group of particular concern. The research program also aimed to examine the relative roles and interplay of emotion and cognition in determining message effectiveness. The research focused upon the cognitive constructs of response efficacy (i.e., the extent to which a message incorporates coping strategies and information as well as the extent that individuals' perceive a message as incorporating such coping strategies and information) and involvement (i.e., the extent to which individuals perceive an issue or message as personally relevant and/or as being at risk of experiencing).----- The research program may be conceptualised as three stages, with each stage comprised of an empirical study and one or more manuscripts. The first stage of the research explored the roles and effectiveness of negative and positive emotional appeals. With a substantial body of literature available on the use of fear as a persuasive strategy, Paper One reviewed the theoretical and empirical evidence relating to the function and effectiveness of such appeals. This paper highlighted the mixed findings that have been reported and the controversy surrounding the nature of the fear-persuasion relationship. This paper also highlighted the importance of cognitive components of a message and, in particular, the need to incorporate high levels of response efficacy and to be cognisant of the issue of threat and message relevance.----- Paper Two was based on qualitative research derived from focus groups of licensed drivers (N = 16). The study investigated the roles and effectiveness of positive and negative emotional appeals in road safety advertisements addressing speeding and drink driving. The results suggested that positive and negative emotional appeals may serve different functions. Positive emotional appeals were regarded as a potentially efficacious means of promoting the message of prevention and to model safe behaviour and the rewards received whereas negative emotional appeals were regarded an important way to remind drivers of the dangers of driving.----- The second stage of the research program endeavoured to extend upon the findings reported in the first stage by providing an empirical comparison of positive, humorous appeals and negative, fear-based appeals on a range of outcome measures and over time. In Paper Three, the type of emotional appeal (positive/humorous, negative/fear), level of response efficacy (low, high), level of involvement (low, high), and gender were manipulated in a 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 mixed group design. Licensed drivers (N = 201) completed either a paper-and-pencil or internet-based version of a questionnaire. Prior to the anti-drink driving television advertisements being shown, pre-exposure were assessed. Attitudes and intentions were then assessed immediately after exposure and attitudes, intentions, and behaviour, 2 to 4 weeks later. The results provided evidence of the greater persuasiveness of negative appeals immediately after exposure and greater improvement of positive appeals over time. Also, the results highlighted the importance of high levels of response efficacy, irrespective of emotional appeal type. Paper Three also supported and extended upon earlier findings by examining third-person perceptions in relation to positive, humorous emotional appeals. The results revealed that males reported significantly greater overall influence both to themselves personally, as well as other drivers in general, than females for the humorous appeals. Further, consistent with the multiple roles of affect posited by Elaboration Likelihood Model, explanations were provided for the differential effectiveness of positive and negative affect.----- An additional aim of the second stage of the research program was to clarify an important methodological issue; the sampling adequacy of traditional university student samples versus internet-based samples for health message persuasion research. Fear appeal empirical literature has been criticised for its over-reliance upon student samples. Paper Four examined the extent that the internet may function as an efficacious means of accessing drivers for road safety advertising research. The sample characteristics and results obtained from student and internet samples of drivers were compared empirically. The results provided support for the greater diversity and representativeness of the internet sample and suggested that the two sampling approaches produce equivalent results. This paper served to inform the validity of prior research and informed the choice of sampling methodologies for the subsequent research stage reported in Paper Five.----- The third stage of the research built upon the preceding stages and, most notably, broadened the scope of emotional appeals examined by comparing a range of negative and positive emotional appeals addressing the issue of speeding. Drawing upon the Rossiter-Percy (1987, 1997) motivational model, Paper Five examined two different negative and two positive emotional appeals designed as audio messages. Specifically, the type of emotional appeal (Problem Avoidance/Fear based; Problem Removal/ Agitation or annoyance-based; Social Approval/ Pride-based; and Intellectual Mastery/ Humour-based), level of response efficacy (low, high), level of involvement (low, high), and gender were manipulated in a 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 fully between groups design. A range of persuasion outcome measures, including attitudes and intentions, were assessed immediately after exposure and 1 month later. Further, the study assessed adaptive (message acceptance) as well as maladaptive (message rejection) intentions. The results provided evidence of the effectiveness of humorous-based appeals for males and highlighted that appeals of the same valence (positive or negative) need not have the same persuasive effects. The results also supported the importance of response efficacy for all appeal types and highlighted that a message's overall effectiveness requires consideration of both message acceptance and rejection rates.----- Overall, the current research program, based upon a sound, multi-disciplinary theoretical framework, provided evidence for the need to broaden the scope of emotional appeals in the road safety advertising context and which may also be relevant within a wider health persuasion context. The results of the three studies have important theoretical and practical implications for future campaign development which are discussed

The Social context of motorcycle riding and the key determinants influencing rider behavior: A qualitative investigation

Objective: Given the increasing popularity of motorcycle riding and heightened risk of injury or death associated with being a rider, this study explored rider behaviour as a determinant of rider safety and, in particular, key beliefs and motivations which influence such behaviour. To enhance the effectiveness of future education and training interventions, it is important to understand riders’ own views about what influences how they ride. Specifically, this study sought to identify key determinants of riders’ behaviour in relation to the social context of riding including social and identity-related influences relating to the group (group norms and group identity) as well as the self (moral/personal norm and self-identity). ----- ----- Method: Qualitative research was undertaken via group discussions with motorcycle riders (n = 41). Results: The findings revealed that those in the group with which one rides represent an important source of social influence. Also, the motorcyclist (group) identity was associated with a range of beliefs, expectations, and behaviours considered to be normative. Exploration of the construct of personal norm revealed that riders were most cognizant of the “wrong things to do” when riding; among those issues raised was the importance of protective clothing (albeit for the protection of others and, in particular, pillion passengers). Finally, self-identity as a motorcyclist appeared to be important to a rider’s self-concept and was likely to influence their on-road behaviour. ----- ----- Conclusion: Overall, the insight provided by the current study may facilitate the development of interventions including rider training as well as public education and mass media messages. The findings suggest that these interventions should incorporate factors associated with the social nature of riding in order to best align it with some of the key beliefs and motivations underpinning riders’ on-road behaviours

What do we currently know about designing and evaluating road safety advertising?

Overview: What we currently know - content design and evaluation The direct role (persuasive effects) of advertising Review of some key findings within a conceptual framework of the persuasive process Definitional inconsistencies, methodological limitations, & gaps in existing knowledge Suggested issues/directions for future advertising researc

Examining women's alcohol consumption: The Theory of Planned Behavior and self-identity

<b>Background</b>\ud \ud Changing trends demonstrate that women, in several economically-developed countries, are drinking at higher levels than ever before. Objective: This study applied an extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), including self-identity, to examine women’s intentions to consume alcohol. \ud \ud <b>Methods</b>\ud \ud Women (N = 1069) aged 18 to 87 years, completed a questionnaire measuring their intentions to engage in binge drinking and frequent drinking. As research indicates that drinking trends are a function of age, hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted separately for four age groups (18 to 24, 25 to 34, 35 to 44, 45 and above). Results: Results supported the predictive utility of the TPB, (particularly Attitudes and Perceived Behavioral Control). Across the age groups, the final models explained between 48% and 62% of the variance in intentions to binge drink and between 33% and 51% of the variance in intentions to drink frequently. Subjective norms were significant associated with the youngest group (18 to 24 years) and the oldest group (45+ years). Self-identity was significantly associated with intentions to binge drink in younger women. \ud \ud <b>Conclusions</b>\ud \ud Implications are discussed with regard to the predictive utility of an extended TPB to include self-identity in determining women’s intentions to consume alcohol. Key factors that influence women’s decisions to engage in risky drinking behaviors have been underlined to inform future interventions

Beliefs underlying women’s intentions to consume alcohol.

Background: Changing trends demonstrate that women, in a number of economically-developed countries, are drinking at higher levels than ever before. Exploring key targets for intervention, this study examined the extent to which underlying beliefs in relation to alcohol consumption predicted intentions to drink in three different ways (i.e. low risk drinking, frequent drinking and binge drinking). Methods: Utilizing a prospective design survey, women (N = 1069), aged 18–87 years, completed a questionnaire measuring their beliefs and intentions regarding alcohol consumption. Then, two weeks later, 845 of the original sample, completed a follow-up questionnaire reporting their engagement in the drinking behaviors. A mixed design ANOVA was conducted to examine potential differences between women of different age groups (18–24, 25–34, 35–44, 45–54, 55 years and above) and their intentions to engage in the three different drinking behaviors. Based upon The Theory of Planned Behavior, critical beliefs analyses were carried out to identify key determinants underlying intentions to engage in the three different drinking behaviors. Results: Significant effects of age were found in relation to frequent and binge drinking. The critical beliefs analyses revealed that a number of behavioral, control and normative beliefs were significant predictors of intentions. These beliefs varied according to age group and drinking behavior. Conclusions: Previously unidentified key factors that influence women’s decisions to drink in certain ways have been established. Overall, future interventions and public policy may be better tailored so as to address specific age groups and drinking behaviors

Essential elements for recruitment and retention : Generation Y

Purpose: \ud Generation Y (Gen Y) is the newest and largest generation entering the workforce. Gen Y may differ from previous generations in work-related characteristics which may have recruitment and retention repercussions. Currently, limited theoretically-based research exists regarding Gen Y’s work expectations and goals in relation to undergraduate students and graduates.\ud \ud Design/methodology/approach:\ud This study conducted a theoretically-based investigation of the work expectations and goals of student- and working-Gen Y individuals based within a framework incorporating both expectancy-value and goal setting theories. N = 398 provided useable data via an on-line survey.\ud \ud Findings:\ud Overall, some support was found for predictions with career goals loading on a separate component to daily work expectations and significant differences between student- and working- Gen Y on career goals. No significant differences were found, however, between the two groups in daily work expectations.\ud \ud Research limitations/implications:\ud Future research may benefit from adopting a theoretical framework which assesses both daily work expectations and career goals when examining the factors which motivate Gen Y’s decisions to join and remain at a particular organisation.\ud \ud Practical implications:\ud At a practical level, based on the findings, some examples are provided of the means by which organisations may draw upon daily work expectations and career goals of importance to Gen Y and, in doing so, influence the likelihood that a Gen Y individual will join and remain at their particular organisation.\ud \ud Originality/value:\ud This research has demonstrated the utility of adopting a sound theoretical framework in furthering understanding about the motivations which influence organisations’ ability to recruit and retain Gen Y, among both student Gen Y as well as those Gen Y individuals who are already working

Creating persuasive appeals to encourage young people's discussion of organ donation wishes

This project includes a multi-phase study on developing and testing persuasive message appeals to encourage young people to share their donation wishes with family

Individual differences in drivers’ cognitive processing of road safety messages

Using Gray and McNaughton’s (2000) revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST), we examined the influence of personality on processing of words presented in gain-framed and loss-framed anti-speeding messages and how the processing biases associated with personality influenced message acceptance. The r-RST predicts that the nervous system regulates personality and that behaviour is dependent upon the activation of the Behavioural Activation System (BAS), activated by reward cues and the Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS), activated by punishment cues. According to r-RST, individuals differ in the sensitivities of their BAS and FFFS (i.e., weak to strong), which in turn leads to stable patterns of behaviour in the presence of rewards and punishments, respectively. It was hypothesised that individual differences in personality (i.e., strength of the BAS and the FFFS) would influence the degree of both message processing (as measured by reaction time to previously viewed message words) and message acceptance (measured three ways by perceived message effectiveness, behavioural intentions, and attitudes). Specifically, it was anticipated that, individuals with a stronger BAS would process the words presented in the gain-frame messages faster than those with a weaker BAS and individuals with a stronger FFFS would process the words presented in the loss-frame messages faster than those with a weaker FFFS. Further, it was expected that greater processing (faster reaction times) would be associated with greater acceptance for that message. Driver licence holding students (N = 108) were recruited to view one of four anti-speeding messages (i.e., social gain-frame, social loss-frame, physical gain-frame, and physical loss-frame). A computerised lexical decision task assessed participants’ subsequent reaction times to message words, as an indicator of the extent of processing of the previously viewed message. Self-report measures assessed personality and the three message acceptance measures. As predicted, the degree of initial processing of the content of the social gain-framed message mediated the relationship between the reward sensitive trait and message effectiveness. Initial processing of the physical loss-framed message partially mediated the relationship between the punishment sensitive trait and both message effectiveness and behavioural intention ratings. These results show that reward sensitivity and punishment sensitivity traits influence cognitive processing of gain-framed and loss-framed message content, respectively, and subsequently, message effectiveness and behavioural intention ratings. Specifically, a range of road safety messages (i.e., gain-frame and loss-frame messages) could be designed which align with the processing biases associated with personality and which would target those individuals who are sensitive to rewards and those who are sensitive to punishments