Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy (4th edition)1.

In 2008, we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, this topic has received increasing attention, and many scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Thus, it is important to formulate on a regular basis updated guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Despite numerous reviews, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to evaluate autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. Here, we present a set of guidelines for investigators to select and interpret methods to examine autophagy and related processes, and for reviewers to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of reports that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a dogmatic set of rules, because the appropriateness of any assay largely depends on the question being asked and the system being used. Moreover, no individual assay is perfect for every situation, calling for the use of multiple techniques to properly monitor autophagy in each experimental setting. Finally, several core components of the autophagy machinery have been implicated in distinct autophagic processes (canonical and noncanonical autophagy), implying that genetic approaches to block autophagy should rely on targeting two or more autophagy-related genes that ideally participate in distinct steps of the pathway. Along similar lines, because multiple proteins involved in autophagy also regulate other cellular pathways including apoptosis, not all of them can be used as a specific marker for bona fide autophagic responses. Here, we critically discuss current methods of assessing autophagy and the information they can, or cannot, provide. Our ultimate goal is to encourage intellectual and technical innovation in the field

Global leadership : key concepts and frameworks

This chapter provides an overview of key concepts and frameworks relating to global leadership. Spencer-Oatey starts by considering a range of definitions of leadership and then, drawing on those various definitions, argues that the enactment of leadership is a multiplex involving four key elements: leader, followers, purpose, and context. She explores each of these facets in turn, illustrating how they interact dynamically. She draws particular attention to the leader-follower relational dynamic and explains how Redeker et al’s (2014) leadership circumplex, which was used in case study data collection, can offer helpful insights. The chapter ends by considering the notion of global leadership and by touching on the various routes that people can take to develop into a global leader. Keywords: Defining leadership; leadership multiplex; leaders and followers; leaders and context/purpose; global leadershi