The Pursuit of Profit or Prestige: What the Diffusion of MOOCs Can Tell Us about Disruptive Innovation in US Higher Education

Disruptive innovations are used to lower costs and augment access to high-quality, affordable higher education, but little systematic research is available on the topic. Higher education institutions use disruptive innovations to save students time and money. To understand the process of disruptive innovation, I investigated the rapid diffusion of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), which are free or low-cost college courses available online. Specifically, I examined the drivers of disruptive innovation over time and by institution type, and augmented the existing theory on the diffusion of disruptive innovation in higher education. The key for this systematic study was to have a dataset that encompassed a large sample of adopters and non-adopters. I constructed a new dataset merging 4 years of IPEDS data with MOOC data (n = 1,470). Analytically, I used competing drivers of institutional change, specifically prestige-seeking versus economic competition, to investigate rate and drivers of adoption, how drivers varied over time, and which institutions were most and least likely to innovate. I employed time-series inferential statistics, specifically discrete time hazard modeling (DTHM), and latent class analysis (LCA), as well as descriptive statistics. Three research questions guided this dissertation. 1. When is MOOC adoption most likely? How does prestige-seeking behavior compared to economic competition influence the adoption of MOOCs? 2. Does partnership with a for-profit versus nonprofit provider differ by prestige-seeking behavior or economic competition? Do these partnerships change over time? 3. To what extent does a typology of institutional innovators based on prestige-seeking behavior and economic competition exist? To what extent does this typology of innovators relate to MOOC adoption? How does the adoption of innovation by institutional subgroup vary over time? The findings suggested that rate of adoption, at its height, was a little over 3% in academic year 2013, 2 years after the launch of MOOCs. Both prestige-seeking behavior and economic competition were important predictors of innovation, although institutions most likely to innovate were very prestigious and strategic about the markets they chose for competition. Specifically, the most likely adopters of disruptive innovation were highly competitive in distance education and in pursuing private grants and contracts from industry, but often did not cut costs (e.g., replacing full-time faculty with adjuncts or expanding managerial capacity) to streamline affairs on campus or manage market expansion. By contrast, institutions that did not innovate often exhibited the opposite characteristics. Finally, because the first two results suggested different adopters, I found five different types of institutional innovators (Accelerators, Wealth Managers, Pragmatists, Opportunists, and Laggards). Approximately 15% of colleges were Accelerators (primed to be disruptive innovators), while the rest were characterized by limited motivate to change or limited institutional capacity to innovate

Implementation of High School-to-College Transition Courses in Four States

Though college enrollment is on the rise, too many students continue to be underprepared for postsecondary coursework. To address this problem, a growing number of high schools across the country are offering transition courses, which aim to improve college readiness while students are still in high school. This report describes findings from a qualitative study examining the implementation of transition courses in four states: California, New York, Tennessee, and West Virginia. The report draws on interviews with faculty, administrators, and students as well as classroom observations and publicly available documentation. The implementation of transition courses varied across states, incorporating different curricular activities and pedagogical approaches to improve students’ knowledge and skills in the fundamentals of math and English. This report discusses the differences and similarities among the courses; it also describes associated professional development opportunities, the teachers and students who participated in the courses, and the obstacles and facilitators that the various actors experienced as they were implementing the transition courses in their respective states. It concludes by outlining issues that stakeholders at the state and local levels may wish to consider when implementing transition courses

Improving the Transition to College: Estimating the Impact of High School Transition Courses on Short-Term College Outcomes

Many recent high school graduates remain inadequately prepared for college and are required to enroll in remedial or developmental education courses in mathematics or English upon enrollment in college. High rates of college remediation are associated with lower progression and college completion rates. To address this problem, some states, districts, and individual high schools have introduced “transition courses” to prepare students for college-level math and English coursework. Transition courses are typically offered to high school seniors who have been assessed as being underprepared for college math or English. This study uses a regression discontinuity design to estimate the effect of participation in a mathematics transition course on college-level math outcomes in West Virginia for the 2011–12 and 2012–13 high school senior cohorts. Our findings suggest that, among students who scored very close to the cutoff score on an assessment used to decide what students took the course, the math transition course had no statistically significant effect on improving college readiness (as measured by exemption from remedial education upon college entry due to a passing score on a placement test) and in fact had a negative impact on students’ likelihood of passing a college gatekeeper math course. Possible explanations for these outcomes include that (1) the transition course may have displaced traditional senior-year courses that were in practice more rigorous than the transition course or that provided positive impacts from inclusion of higher performing peers, and that (2) the transition course curricula may not have been well aligned to the skills required for success on the COMPASS placement test. Most students who took the transition course did not pass the COMPASS, which was taken at the conclusion of the course. The specific math course studied is no longer offered; math transition courses in West Virginia now use a different curriculum

What We Know About Transition Courses

Developing high-quality transition curricula for high school students so they can be ready for college is challenging, and achieving good results requires time and commitment. Sharing approaches to implementation and outcomes findings can allow education leaders to make appropriate adjustments to existing programs or help them to start new ones. To encourage communication about transition curricula, CCRC convened researchers, practitioners, and policymakers from seven states in the spring of 2015 (CA, FL, IL, NJ, NY, TN, and WV) to review our collective knowledge about these programs. This overview, What We Know About Transition Courses, provides a summary of the state of knowledge on transition courses based on CCRC’s ongoing research and discussions held that day. Transition Course Initiatives in Seven States is a summary of each participating state’s transition course initiative

Can High School Transition Courses Help Students Avoid College Remediation? Estimating the Impact of a Transition Program in a Large Urban District

Graduating from high school does not always ensure successful transition into postsecondary education or other career training. While college participation rates are at a historic high, too many students who graduate from high school are underprepared for college. Schools across the country are working to help improve students’ college readiness by implementing transition courses developed jointly by secondary and postsecondary faculty for students at risk of being placed into remedial math or English coursework. This study examines the effectiveness of math and English transition courses with added supports through the At Home in College program in New York City, which was developed by the City University of New York. Our study asks:What is the impact of the availability of the transition course program on students’ attainment of college readiness benchmarks upon initial college enrollment and on students’ likelihood of passing a first college-level (gatekeeper) course in the related subject in the first year of college? Taking advantage of staggered program implementation, we employ a difference-in-differences (DID) methodology to compare the difference in student outcomes between cohorts of students in schools that continuously implemented the transition program during a given timeframe to the difference in outcomes between cohorts that had not yet implemented the program. Our findings in relation to English suggest a small negative impact (3 percentage points) on college readiness and no impact on passing an English gatekeeper course within the first-year of college entry. In math, we find no impact on college readiness in math and a small positive and significant effect (1 percentage point) on passing a math gatekeeper course within one year of college entry. In both subjects, we find a small, positive impact (1 credit) on the number of college course credits earned in the first year. However, these results are somewhat sensitive to alternate sample specifications. Taken together, the findings suggest that offering the program is likely neutral to mildly beneficial and at least not harmful to high school seniors. Yet because the counterfactual circumstance typically includes a college-preparatory course of some kind that is displaced in favor of the treatment, it is important for policymakers and educators implementing transition courses to carefully consider the unintended consequences of removing students from alternative courses. If the alternative courses are already rigorous, well-taught, and packed with content that is useful for college success, the transformative impact of a transition course may be limited

Early Assessments and Transition Curricula: What States Can Do

Brief of report investigating the fact that too many students who graduate from high school are underprepared for college-level coursework. To address this problem, states are increasingly administering assessments in the 11th grade to measure students’ college readiness. Some states are also beginning to offer transition curricula, developed by secondary and postsecondary faculty, that are designed to help at-risk students avoid remediation and become better prepared for the challenges of college. Based largely on interviews with stakeholders in California, New York, Tennessee, and West Virginia, this report describes how these four states have developed initiatives related to early college readiness assessments and transition curricula. Leaders in each state have made particular choices in the design of each program, including what assessment to use; how to determine what level of performance on an assessment aligns with college-level expectations; whether transition curricula should focus on math, English, or both; and how students should be placed into transition courses. In comparing the development of these interventions across states, we identify several central challenges: Given that high school students will attend different colleges and pursue different college programs, how should college readiness be defined? Should transition curricula focus on having students pass remedial placement tests, or should the curricula cover a broader range of skills needed for success in college courses? Should transition courses be offered to all low-performing students or only those who are nearly college ready? While early college assessments and transition curricula are promising approaches for improving students’ college readiness, findings from our study suggest that strong collaboration between the K-12 and higher education sectors in developing these initiatives is essential for ensuring that the skills and knowledge taught and assessed in high school are well aligned with those needed for success in college. What is more, program designers need to carefully consider competing priorities concerning initiative goals, populations served, and course content. The study also suggests that state-level commitment to improving college readiness in the form of legislation may be helpful in building support and momentum for these initiatives. More research is needed on the impact of these two interrelated and relatively new interventions. CCRC plans to pursue additional research in the four states discussed in this report

Physical Examination Education in Graduate Medical Education—A Systematic Review of the Literature

ObjectivesThere is widespread recognition that physical examination (PE) should be taught in Graduate Medical Education (GME), but little is known regarding how to best teach PE to residents. Deliberate practice fosters expertise in other fields, but its utility in teaching PE is unknown. We systematically reviewed the literature to determine the effectiveness of methods to teach PE in GME, with attention to usage of deliberate practice.Data sourcesWe searched PubMed, ERIC, and EMBASE for English language studies regarding PE education in GME published between January 1951 and December 2012.Study eligibility criteriaSeven eligibility criteria were applied to studies of PE education: (1) English language; (2) subjects in GME; (3) description of study population; (4) description of intervention; (5) assessment of efficacy; (6) inclusion of control group; and (7) report of data analysis.Study appraisal and synthesis methodsWe extracted data regarding study quality, type of PE, study population, curricular features, use of deliberate practice, outcomes and assessment methods. Tabulated summaries of studies were reviewed for narrative synthesis.ResultsFourteen studies met inclusion criteria. The mean Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument (MERSQI) score was 9.0 out of 18. Most studies (n = 8) included internal medicine residents. Half of the studies used resident interaction with a human examinee as the primary means of teaching PE. Three studies "definitely" and four studies "possibly" used deliberate practice; all but one of these studies demonstrated improved educational outcomes.LimitationsWe used a non-validated deliberate practice assessment. Given the heterogeneity of assessment modalities, we did not perform a meta-analysis.Conclusions and implications of key findingsNo single strategy for teaching PE in GME is clearly superior to another. Following the principles of deliberate practice and interaction with human examinees may be beneficial in teaching PE; controlled studies including these educational features should be performed to investigate these exploratory findings

Reshaping the College Transition: Early College Readiness Assessments and Transition Curricula in Four States

Too many students who graduate from high school are underprepared for college-level coursework. To address this problem, states are increasingly administering assessments in the 11th grade to measure students’ college readiness. Some states are also beginning to offer transition curricula, developed by secondary and postsecondary faculty, that are designed to help at-risk students avoid remediation and become better prepared for the challenges of college. Based largely on interviews with stakeholders in California, New York, Tennessee, and West Virginia, this report describes how these four states have developed initiatives related to early college readiness assessments and transition curricula. Leaders in each state have made particular choices in the design of each program, including what assessment to use; how to determine what level of performance on an assessment aligns with college-level expectations; whether transition curricula should focus on math, English, or both; and how students should be placed into transition courses. In comparing the development of these interventions across states, we identify several central challenges: Given that high school students will attend different colleges and pursue different college programs, how should college readiness be defined? Should transition curricula focus on having students pass remedial placement tests, or should the curricula cover a broader range of skills needed for success in college courses? Should transition courses be offered to all low-performing students or only those who are nearly college ready? While early college assessments and transition curricula are promising approaches for improving students’ college readiness, findings from our study suggest that strong collaboration between the K-12 and higher education sectors in developing these initiatives is essential for ensuring that the skills and knowledge taught and assessed in high school are well aligned with those needed for success in college. What is more, program designers need to carefully consider competing priorities concerning initiative goals, populations served, and course content. The study also suggests that state-level commitment to improving college readiness in the form of legislation may be helpful in building support and momentum for these initiatives. More research is needed on the impact of these two interrelated and relatively new interventions. CCRC plans to pursue additional research in the four states discussed in this report

Policy Instruments in Service of Performance Funding: A Study of Performance Funding in Three States

This study examines the primary policy instruments through which state performance funding systems influence higher education institutions in Indiana, Ohio, and Tennessee. The authors interviewed personnel at nine community colleges and nine universities about the use of four policy instruments: (1) financial incentives, (2) communication of program goals and methods, (3) communication about institutional performance, and (4) enhancement of colleges’ capacities to improve student outcomes. The authors examine the immediate impacts of these instruments on college budgets, campus awareness of performance funding goals and institutional performance, and institutional capacity, as well as their impacts on efforts to improve student outcomes. In all three states, policymakers relied mainly on financial incentives to induce change at community college and university campuses. State officials also made efforts to communicate with campus leaders and staff about performance funding and institutional performance, though these efforts varied in their intensity and their level of campus penetration. The authors find very limited evidence of state efforts to build campus-level capacity for organizational learning and change. Besides documenting main trends, the authors also analyze how interviewee responses varied by state, by type of institution (community college or university), by institutional capacity to respond to the demands of performance funding, and by position the interviewee held in the institution

Looking Inside the Black Box of Performance Funding for Higher Education: Policy Instruments, Outcomes, Obstacles, and Unintended Impacts

For several decades, policymakers have been concerned about increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of postsecondary institutions. In recent years, performance funding—which directly connects state funding to an institution’s performance on indicators such as student persistence, credit accrual, and college completion—has become a particularly attractive way of pursuing better college outcomes. But even as states have made an enormous investment in performance funding, troubling questions have been raised about whether performance funding has the effects intended and whether it also produces substantial negative side effects in the form of restrictions in access for underrepresented students and weakening of academic standards. This paper addresses these troubling questions by drawing on data richer than heretofore available. In addition to drawing on the existing body of research on performance funding, it reports data from a study of the implementation of performance funding in three leading states (Indiana, Ohio, and Tennessee) and its impacts on three universities and three community colleges in each state