Assessing the cumulative impacts of wind farms on peatland birds: a case study of golden plover Pluvialis apricaria in Scotland

The distribution of golden plover across Scotland was modelled using land cover and management variables, and used to highlight the spatial association between golden plover abundance and current and proposed wind farm developments. Overlap was greatest in three biogeographical zones (the Western Isles, the Western Central Belt and the Borders Hills) and was estimated at ca. 5% of the biogeographical population in each case. New field data were used to predict the effects of wind farm development on golden plover populations, employing a conservative analytical approach to detect statistically significant wind farm related effects. The results provide evidence of significant avoidance of wind turbines by breeding golden plovers to a distance of at least 200 metres. Furthermore, wind farm sites appear to support lower densities of golden plover than predicted by the distribution model for sites without wind farms. Therefore, there is evidence for negative effects of wind farm developments on golden plover, and we suggest strategies to reduce any potential conflict between the need to promote wind energy and the need to maintain golden plover populations

Observations of seabirds at offshore wind turbines near Blyth in northeast England

Capsule No obvious effects were detected, except for reduced Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo presence after construction. Aim To check for differences in the numbers and behaviour of seabirds following construction of two turbines 1 km offshore. Methods Shore-based two-hour watches were conducted several times per month during 26 months before turbine construction, seven months during construction, and 32 months after construction. Numbers, flight heights and directions of all passing seabirds were noted, as were weather and tidal conditions. No watches were made under darkness or in poor daytime visibility. Results In summer, numbers of Cormorants declined post-construction, while Sandwich Terns Sterna sandvicensis and Great Black-backed Gulls Larus marinus increased. Otherwise no meaningful changes in bird numbers and behaviour were recorded, and no collision mortality was witnessed during 352 hours of daytime watches post-construction. Most seabirds flew below the height of the rotor blades. Conclusion Apart from possibly causing decline in summer usage of the locality by Cormorants, the turbines seem to have had no adverse effects on the local seabirds in the periods and conditions covered by our watches. We advise against extrapolating our findings to conditions of poor visibility or darkness, or to larger windfarms

Future research directions to reconcile wind turbine - wildlife interactions

Concurrent with the development of wind energy, research activity on wind energy generation and wildlife has evolved significantly during the last decade. This chapter presents an overview of remaining key knowledge gaps, consequent future research directions and their significance for management and planning for wind energy generation. The impacts of wind farms on wildlife are generally site-, species- and season-specific and related management strategies and practices may differ considerably between countries. These differences acknowledge the need to consider potential wildlife impacts for each wind farm project. Still, the ecological mechanisms guiding species’ responses and potential vulnerability to wind farms can be expected to be fundamental in nature. A more cohesive understanding of the causes, patterns, mechanisms, and consequences of animal movement decisions will thereby facilitate successful mitigation of impacts. This requires planning approaches that implement the mitigation hierarchy effectively to reduce risks to species of concern. At larger geographical scales, population-level and cumulative impacts of multiple wind farms (and other anthropogenic activity) need to be addressed. This requires longitudinal and multiple-site studies to identify species-specific traits that influence risk of mortality, notably from collision with wind turbines, disturbance or barrier effects. In addition, appropriate pre- and post-construction monitoring techniques must be utilized. Predictive modelling to forecast risk, while tackling spatio-temporal variability, can guide the mitigation of wildlife impacts at wind farms

Future research directions to reconcile wind turbine - wildlife interactions

Concurrent with the development of wind energy, research activity on wind energy generation and wildlife has evolved significantly during the last decade. This chapter presents an overview of remaining key knowledge gaps, consequent future research directions and their significance for management and planning for wind energy generation. The impacts of wind farms on wildlife are generally site-, species- and season-specific and related management strategies and practices may differ considerably between countries. These differences acknowledge the need to consider potential wildlife impacts for each wind farm project. Still, the ecological mechanisms guiding species’ responses and potential vulnerability to wind farms can be expected to be fundamental in nature. A more cohesive understanding of the causes, patterns, mechanisms, and consequences of animal movement decisions will thereby facilitate successful mitigation of impacts. This requires planning approaches that implement the mitigation hierarchy effectively to reduce risks to species of concern. At larger geographical scales, population-level and cumulative impacts of multiple wind farms (and other anthropogenic activity) need to be addressed. This requires longitudinal and multiple-site studies to identify species-specific traits that influence risk of mortality, notably from collision with wind turbines, disturbance or barrier effects. In addition, appropriate pre- and post-construction monitoring techniques must be utilized. Predictive modelling to forecast risk, while tackling spatio-temporal variability, can guide the mitigation of wildlife impacts at wind farms