Is the critical Shields stress for incipient sediment motion dependent on channel-bed slope?

Data from laboratory flumes and natural streams show that the critical Shields stress for initial sediment motion increases with channel slope, which indicates that particles of the same size are more stable on steeper slopes. This observation is contrary to standard models that predict reduced stability with increasing slope due to the added downstream gravitational force. Processes that might explain this discrepancy are explored using a simple force-balance model, including increased drag from channel walls and bed morphology, variable friction angles, grain emergence, flow aeration, and changes to the local flow velocity and turbulent fluctuations. Surprisingly, increased drag due to changes in bed morphology does not appear to be the cause of the slope dependency because both the magnitude and trend of the critical Shields stress are similar for flume experiments and natural streams, and significant variations in bed morphology in flumes is unlikely. Instead, grain emergence and changes in local flow velocity and turbulent fluctuations seem to be responsible for the slope dependency due to the coincident increase in the ratio of bed-roughness scale to flow depth (i.e., relative roughness). A model for the local velocity within the grain-roughness layer is proposed based on a 1-D eddy viscosity with wake mixing. In addition, the magnitude of near-bed turbulent fluctuations is shown to depend on the depth-averaged flow velocity and the relative roughness. Extension of the model to mixed grain sizes indicates that the coarser fraction becomes increasingly difficult to transport on steeper slopes

Experimental and theoretical study of shuttle lee-side heat transfer rates

The experimental program which was conducted in the Calspan 96-inch hypersonic shock tunnel to investigate what effect the windward surface temperature had on the heat transfer to the leeward surface of the space shuttle orbiter is discussed. Heat-transfer distributions, surface-pressure distributions, and schlieren photographs were obtained for an 0.01-scale model of the 139 configuration space shuttle orbiter at angles-of-attack of 30 and 40 deg. Similar data were obtained for an 0.01 scale wingless model of the 139 configuration at angles-of-attack of 30 and 90 deg. Data were obtained for Mach numbers from Reynolds numbers, and surface temperatures and compared with theoretical results

Gamma-Ray Bursts as a Probe of the Very High Redshift Universe

We show that, if many GRBs are indeed produced by the collapse of massive stars, GRBs and their afterglows provide a powerful probe of the very high redshift (z > 5) universe.Comment: To appear in Proc. of the 5th Huntsville Gamma-Ray Burst Symposium, 5 pages, LaTe

The grain size gap and abrupt gravel-sand transitions in rivers due to suspension fallout

Median grain sizes on riverbeds range from boulders in uplands to silt in lowlands; however, rivers with ~1–5 mm diameter bed sediment are rare. This grain size gap also marks an abrupt transition between gravel- and sand-bedded reaches that is unlike any other part of the fluvial network. Abrupt gravel-sand transitions have been attributed to rapid breakdown or rapid transport of fine gravel, or a bimodal sediment supply, but supporting evidence is lacking. Here we demonstrate that rivers dramatically lose the ability to transport sand as wash load where bed shear velocity drops below ~0.1 m/s, forcing an abrupt transition in bed-material grain size. Using thresholds for wash load and initial motion, we show that the gap emerges only for median bed-material grain sizes of ~1–5 mm due to Reynolds number dependencies in suspension transport. The grain size gap, therefore, is sensitive to material properties and gravity, with coarser gaps predicted on Mars and Titan

Coherent vibrations of submicron spherical gold shells in a photonic crystal

Coherent acoustic radial oscillations of thin spherical gold shells of submicron diameter excited by an ultrashort optical pulse are observed in the form of pronounced modulations of the transient reflectivity on a subnanosecond time scale. Strong acousto-optical coupling in a photonic crystal enhances the modulation of the transient reflectivity up to 4%. The frequency of these oscillations is demonstrated to be in good agreement with Lamb theory of free gold shells.Comment: Error in Eqs.2 and 3 corrected; Tabl. I corrected; Fig.1 revised; a model that explains the dependence of the oscillation amplitude of the transient reflectivity with wavelength adde

Proton imaging of stochastic magnetic fields

Recent laser-plasma experiments report the existence of dynamically significant magnetic fields, whose statistical characterisation is essential for understanding the physical processes these experiments are attempting to investigate. In this paper, we show how a proton imaging diagnostic can be used to determine a range of relevant magnetic field statistics, including the magnetic-energy spectrum. To achieve this goal, we explore the properties of an analytic relation between a stochastic magnetic field and the image-flux distribution created upon imaging that field. We conclude that features of the beam's final image-flux distribution often display a universal character determined by a single, field-scale dependent parameter - the contrast parameter - which quantifies the relative size of the correlation length of the stochastic field, proton displacements due to magnetic deflections, and the image magnification. For stochastic magnetic fields, we establish the existence of four contrast regimes - linear, nonlinear injective, caustic and diffusive - under which proton-flux images relate to their parent fields in a qualitatively distinct manner. As a consequence, it is demonstrated that in the linear or nonlinear injective regimes, the path-integrated magnetic field experienced by the beam can be extracted uniquely, as can the magnetic-energy spectrum under a further statistical assumption of isotropy. This is no longer the case in the caustic or diffusive regimes. We also discuss complications to the contrast-regime characterisation arising for inhomogeneous, multi-scale stochastic fields, as well as limitations currently placed by experimental capabilities on extracting magnetic field statistics. The results presented in this paper provide a comprehensive description of proton images of stochastic magnetic fields, with applications for improved analysis of given proton-flux images.Comment: Main paper pp. 1-29; appendices pp. 30-84. 24 figures, 2 table

Substrate controls on valley formation by groundwater on Earth and Mars

Valleys with amphitheater-shaped headwalls on Mars have been used to constrain early martian hydrology and, importantly, have been interpreted as eroded from groundwater-fed springs, which might have constituted hospitable environments for life on ancient Mars. Groundwater-fed springs have carved valleys in rare examples on Earth; however, these valleys are in loose sandy sediments and weakly cemented sandstones, and it is unclear whether groundwater is also an effective erosion agent in the basaltic bedrock and boulders within martian valleys. Here we develop a theoretical model for the efficiency of valley formation by groundwater-seepage erosion, and we show that valley formation by groundwater is limited to narrow ranges in aquifer permeabilities and sediment sizes that are characteristic of loose or weakly consolidated sand. The model is validated against groundwater-carved valleys in loose sand in physical experiments and natural valleys on Earth. Applied to valleys near Echus Chasma, Mars, our model precludes a formation by seepage erosion due to the inferred basaltic bedrock; instead, the model implies that surface flows of water were required to form the valleys, with significant implications for the hydrology, climate, and habitability of ancient Mars

Hydraulics of floods upstream of horseshoe canyons and waterfalls

Horseshoe waterfalls are ubiquitous in natural streams, bedrock canyons, and engineering structures. Nevertheless, water flow patterns upstream of horseshoe waterfalls are poorly known and likely differ from the better studied case of a one-dimensional linear step because of flow focusing into the horseshoe. This is a significant knowledge gap because the hydraulics at waterfalls controls sediment transport and bedrock incision, which can compromise the integrity of engineered structures and influence the evolution of river canyons on Earth and Mars. Here we develop new semiempirical theory for the spatial acceleration of water upstream of, and the cumulative discharge into, horseshoe canyons and waterfalls. To this end, we performed 110 numerical experiments by solving the 2-D depth-averaged shallow-water equations for a wide range of flood depths, widths and discharges, and canyon lengths, widths and bed gradients. We show that the upstream, normal flow Froude number is the dominant control on lateral flow focusing and acceleration into the canyon head and that focusing is limited when the flood width is small compared to a cross-stream backwater length scale. In addition, for sheet floods much wider than the canyon, flow focusing into the canyon head leads to reduced discharge (and drying in cases) across the canyon sidewalls, which is especially pronounced for canyons that are much longer than they are wide. Our results provide new expectations for morphodynamic feedbacks between floods and topography, and thus canyon formation

Treatment compliance and effectiveness of a cognitive behavioural intervention for low back pain : a complier average causal effect approach to the BeST data set

Background: Group cognitive behavioural intervention (CBI) is effective in reducing low-back pain and disability in comparison to advice in primary care. The aim of this analysis was to investigate the impact of compliance on estimates of treatment effect and to identify factors associated with compliance. Methods: In this multicentre trial, 701 adults with troublesome sub-acute or chronic low-back pain were recruited from 56 general practices. Participants were randomised to advice (control n = 233) or advice plus CBI (n = 468). Compliance was specified a priori as attending a minimum of three group sessions and the individual assessment. We estimated the complier average causal effect (CACE) of treatment. Results: Comparison of the CACE estimate of the mean treatment difference to the intention-to-treat (ITT) estimate at 12 months showed a greater benefit of CBI amongst participants compliant with treatment on the Roland Morris Questionnaire (CACE: 1.6 points, 95% CI 0.51 to 2.74; ITT: 1.3 points, 95% CI 0.55 to 2.07), the Modified Von Korff disability score (CACE: 12.1 points, 95% CI 6.07 to 18.17; ITT: 8.6 points, 95% CI 4.58 to 12.64) and the Modified von Korff pain score (CACE: 10.4 points, 95% CI 4.64 to 16.10; ITT: 7.0 points, 95% CI 3.26 to 10.74). People who were non-compliant were younger and had higher pain scores at randomisation. Conclusions: Treatment compliance is important in the effectiveness of group CBI. Younger people and those with more pain are at greater risk of non-compliance