Odor exploration behavior of the domestic pig (Sus scrofa) as indicator of enriching properties of odors

Introduction and aim: Although the sense of smell in pigs is widely recognized as being highly developed, surprisingly little is known about their sensory ability. This study aimed to (a) identify which non-social odors pigs were able to detect and distinguish between, (b) investigate the types of behavior expressed when exploring odors and, (c) compare pigs’ responses to the different odors to evaluate their interest in the odors.Methods: Growing pigs (N = 192) of crossbred commercial breeds were enrolled in the experiment (32–110 days of age, weighing 64.9 ± 10.1kg). Littermate pairs of opposite sex were tested in test pens with two odor insertion points in the pen wall, 55 cm apart. All pigs were habituated to the test pens and experimenters. Twelve odors were tested (eight essential oils and four synthetic perfumes) in groups of three odors, with each pig pair tested once with one set of three odors (all possible orders of the three odors were tested on 24 pairs in total), always against a non-odor control (demineralized water). In a test, each of the three odors were presented during three trials in a row (a total of 9 trials per test; trial duration: 1 min; inter-trial breaks: 2 min; total test duration: 25 min). Response variables included: duration of sniffing, feeding-related behavior (licking, biting and rooting), agonistic behavior (biting, displacement and pushing) and no approach of the odor or control, recorded throughout each 1-min odor presentation.Results: All pigs sniffed an odor less when repeatedly presented (LMM: all odors P Conclusion: Collectively, pigs express sniffing, agonistic, and feeding-related behavior when exploring odors, which suggests that pigs perceive odors of non-social origin as a resource. Odors may thus constitute relevant enrichment material for pigs

Non-western immigrants' satisfaction with the general practitioners' services in Oslo, Norway

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Over the last few years the number of immigrants from the non-western parts of the world living in Oslo, has increased considerably. We need to know if these immigrants are satisfied with the health services they are offered. The aim of this study was to assess whether the immigrants' level of satisfaction with visits to general practitioners was comparable with that for ethnic Norwegians.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Two population-based surveys, the Oslo Health Study and the Oslo Immigrant Health Study, were performed on selected groups of Oslo citizens in 2000 and 2002. The response rates were 46% and 33%, respectively. In all, 11936 Norwegians and 1102 non-western immigrants from the Oslo Health Study, and 1774 people from the Oslo Immigrant Health Study, were included in this analysis. Non-western immigrants' and ethnic Norwegians' level of satisfaction with visits to general practitioners were analysed with respect to age, gender, health, working status, and use of translators. Bivariate (Chi square) and multivariate analyses (logistic regression) were performed.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Most participants were either moderately or very satisfied with their last visit to a general practitioner. Non-western immigrants were less satisfied than Norwegians. Dissatisfaction among the immigrants was associated with young age, a feeling of not having good health, and coming from Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, or Vietnam as compared to Sri Lanka. The attendance rates in the surveys were rather low and lowest among the non-western immigrants.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Although the degree of satisfaction with the primary health care was relatively high among the participants in these surveys, the non-western immigrants in this study were less satisfied than ethnic Norwegians with their last visit to a general practitioner. The rather low response rates opens for the possibility that the degree of satisfaction may not be representative for all immigrants.</p

How do general practitioners experience providing care to refugees with mental health problems? A qualitative study from Denmark

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

Rub ‘n’ roll – Pigs, Sus scrofa domesticus, display rubbing and rolling behaviour when exposed to odours

Pigs are regarded as having a highly developed sense of smell, although scientific information on the topic is sparse. Here, we describe two behaviours unexpectedly observed in a study assessing pigs’ responses to odours and not previously reported in pigs. The study included 192 pigs of commercial breeds, tested in pairs with 12 different odours of non-social origin: 8 essential oils and 4 synthetic perfumes, plus an odourless control. Each odour was tested 24 times in triads of three odours. The results showed that, when exposed to odours, pigs display rubbing and rolling behaviour. Pigs displayed rubbing behaviour in 18 % of all odour exposures. Rolling behaviour was less frequent and displayed 7 times by five different pig pairs. Rubbing was always displayed following sniffing behaviour, and after a rubbing event, the pigs either performed sniffing behaviour (86.1 %), attempts at rolling (8.8 %) or a rolling event (5.1 %). Both males and females performed the rubbing behaviour (61 % female, 39 % male, Wilcoxon signed-rank test: W = 2199, P > 0.1), rolling behaviour (71 % female, 29 % male) and attempts at rolling (62 % female, 38 % male). Overall, essential oils (lavender, thyme, blood orange, aniseed, cedarwood, cinnamon bark, ginger, and pine) elicited more of the behaviours than the synthetic perfumes (vanilla, musk, apple, and jasmine) or the odourless control. All odours elicited rubbing whereas only four odours (blood orange, ginger, lavender, and pine) elicited rolling. Scent-rubbing/scent-rolling is a well-known behaviour in both wild (e.g., wolves and coyotes) and pet (e.g., cats and dogs) carnivores, although the function is not clear. This is the first report of rubbing and rolling as a response to an odour in pigs. The motivation for performing these behaviours is unknown but may include skin care, comfort behaviour or marking behaviour. Further studies allowing pigs physical access to rub and roll in different odours may elucidate the underlying motivation