Assessment of Technological Capabilities for Forming Al-C-B System Coatings on Steel Surfaces by Electrospark Alloying Method

In this paper, the possibility of applying the electrospark alloying (ESA) method to obtain boron-containing coatings characterised by increased hardness and wear resistance is considered. A new method for producing such coatings is proposed. The method consists in applying grease containing aluminium powder and amorphous boron to the surface to be treated and subsequently processing the obtained surface using the ESA method by a graphite electrode. The microstructural analysis of the Al-C-B coatings on steel C40 showed that the surface layer consists of several zones, the number and parameters of which are determined by the energy conditions of the ESA process. Durametric studies showed that with an increase in the discharge energy influence, the microhardness values of both the upper strengthened layer and the diffusion zone increased to Wp = 0.13 J, Hµ = 6487 MPa, and Wp = 4.9 J, Hµ = 12350 MPa, respectively. The results of X-ray diffraction analysis indicate that at the discharge energies of 0.13 and 0.55 J, the phase composition of the coating is represented by solid solutions of body-centred cubic lattice (BCC) and face-centred cubic lattice (FCC). The coatings obtained at Wp = 4.9 J were characterised by the presence of intermetallics Fe4Al13 and borocementite Fe3 (CB) in addition to the solid solutions. The X-ray spectral analysis of the obtained coatings indicated that during the electrospark alloying process, the surface layers were saturated with aluminium, boron, and carbon. With increasing discharge energy, the diffusion zone increases; during the ESA process with the use of the discharge energy of 0.13 J for steel C40, the diffusion zone is 10–15 µm. When replacing a substrate made of steel C40 with the same one material but of steel C22, an increase in the thickness of the surface layer accompanied by a slight decrease in microhardness is observed as a result of processing with the use of the ESA method. There were simulated phase portraits of the Al-C-B coatings. It is shown that near the stationary points in the phase portraits, one can see either a slowing down of the evolution or a spiral twisting of the diffusion-process particle

Compton scattering beyond the impulse approximation

We treat the non-relativistic Compton scattering process in which an incoming photon scatters from an N-electron many-body state to yield an outgoing photon and a recoil electron, without invoking the commonly used frameworks of either the impulse approximation (IA) or the independent particle model (IPM). An expression for the associated triple differential scattering cross section is obtained in terms of Dyson orbitals, which give the overlap amplitudes between the N-electron initial state and the (N-1) electron singly ionized quantum states of the target. We show how in the high energy transfer regime, one can recover from our general formalism the standard IA based formula for the cross section which involves the ground state electron momentum density (EMD) of the initial state. Our formalism will permit the analysis and interpretation of electronic transitions in correlated electron systems via inelastic x-ray scattering (IXS) spectroscopy beyond the constraints of the IA and the IPM.Comment: 7 pages, 1 figur

Analysis of the Quality of Sulfomolybdenum Coatings Obtained by Electrospark Alloying Methods

The authors of this paper have attempted to improve the quality of surface layers applied to steel elements of machine parts constituting friction couples. The main goal of the research was to investigate an electrospark alloying method process for obtaining abrasion-resistant tribological coatings containing molybdenum disulfide on a steel surface. A substance in the form of sulfur ointment with a sulfur content of 33.3% was applied on the surfaces of C22 and C40 steel specimens. In order to determine the influence of the energy parameters of ESA equipment on the quality parameters of coatings, the ESA process was carried out using a molybdenum electrode with discharge energies Wp = 0.13; Wp = 0.55; Wp = 3.4 J. The following tests were carried out on specimens with such coatings: metallographic analysis, microhardness tests, surface roughness, and local X-ray diffraction microanalysis. The experiments revealed that sulfomolybdenum coatings consist of four zones with different mechanical properties. Depending on the discharge energy and the substrate material, the hardness of these zones varies from approx. 1100 to over 10,000 MPa. Differences in the distribution of, among others, sulfur and molybdenum in the obtained coatings, as well as differences in the microstructure of the observed coatings, were observed

Technological Features for Controlling Steel Part Quality Parameters by the Method of Electrospark Alloying Using Carburezer Containing Nitrogen—Carbon Components

A new method of surface modification based on the method of electrospark alloying (ESA) using carburizer containing nitrogen—carbon components for producing coatings is considered. New processes have been proposed that include the step of applying saturating media in the form of paste-like nitrogenous and nitrogenous-carbon components, respectively, onto the surface without waiting for those media to dry, conducting the ESA process with the use of a steel electrode-tool, as well as with a graphite electrode-tool. Before applying the saturating media, an aluminium layer is applied onto the surface with the use of the ESA method at a discharge energy of Wp = 0.13–6.80 J. A saturating medium in the form of a paste was applied to the surfaces of specimens of steel C22 and steel C40. During nitriding, nitrocarburizing and carburization by ESA (CESA) processes, with an increase in the discharge energy (Wp), the thickness, micro hardness and continuity of the “white layer” coatings, as well as the magnitude of the surface roughness, increase due to saturation of the steel surface with nitrogen and/or carbon, high cooling rates, formation of non-equilibrium structures, formation of special phases, etc. In the course of nitriding, nitrocarburizing and CESA processing of steels C22 and C40, preliminary processing with the use of the ESA method by aluminum increases the thickness, microhardness and continuity of the “white layer”, while the roughness changes insignificantly. Analysis of the phase composition indicates that the presence of the aluminum sublayer leads to the formation of the aluminum-containing phases, resulting in a significant increase in the hardness and, in addition, in an increase in the thickness and quality of the surface layers. The proposed methods can be used to strengthen the surface layers of the critical parts and their elements for compressor and pumping equipment

Markovian Equilibrium in Infinite Horizon Economies with Incomplete Markets and Public Policy

We develop an isotone recursive approach to the problem of existence, computation, and characterization of nonsymmetric locally Lipschitz continuous (and, therefore, Clarke-differentiable) Markovian equilibrium for a class of infinite horizon multiagent competitive equilibrium models with capital, aggregate risk, public policy, externalities, one sector production, and incomplete markets. The class of models we consider is large, and examples have been studied extensively in the applied literature in public economics, macroeconomics, and financial economics. We provide sufficient conditions that distinguish between economies with isotone Lipschitizian Markov equilibrium decision processes (MEDPs) and those that have only locally Lipschitzian (but not necessarily isotone) MEDPs. As our fixed point operators are based upon order continuous and compact non-linear operators, we are able to provide sufficient conditions under which isotone iterative fixed point constructions converge to extremal MEDPs via successive approximation. We develop a first application of a new method for computing MEDPs in a system of Euler inequalities using isotone fixed point theory even when MEDPs are not necessarily isotone. The method is a special case of a more general mixed monotone recursive approach. We show MEDPs are unique only under very restrictive conditions. Finally, we prove monotone comparison theorems in Veinott's strong set order on the space of public policy parameters and distorted production functions

Bridge's deformed steel structural components repairing by thermal forming

Metody termicznego formowania należą do bezkontaktowych metod zmian kształtu elementów. Mechanizmem napędowym procesu jest rozszerzalność termiczna - naturalne zjawisko zachodzące dla wszystkich materiałów. Formowanie termiczne pozwala na naprawę uszkodzonych obiektów mostowych bez konieczności ich demontażu co znacznie skraca czas naprawy i pozwalana na szybsze oddanie takich obiektów do użytku. Czas oddania obiektu odgrywa kluczową kwestię w sensie logistycznym, ponieważ wpływa na poprawienie przepustowości istniejącej infrastruktury drogowej oraz kolejowej z jak najkrótszym wyłączeniem jej z ruchu. Przekłada się to na lepsze planowanie tras przejazdu, z jak najmniejszymi opóźnieniami spowodowanymi przez objazdy, które mogą być konsekwencją zamknięcia drogi na czas naprawy, bądź też opóźnieniami spowodowanymi znacznym zmniejszenie przepustowości uszkodzonego odcinka drogowego. Naprawa niedużych uszkodzeń ma ponadto istotny wpływ na bezpieczeństwo w transporcie, wynikające z dopuszczenia obiektu do ruchu z pełnym obciążeniem ruchem. W niniejszym artykule autor podał przykłady możliwych uszkodzeń oraz zaprezentował sposoby formowania termicznego elementów konstrukcji mostowych, które ulegają uszkodzeniu w trakcie eksploatacji, na skutek impaktu z poruszającymi się pojazdami oraz na skutek działania skrajnych warunków atmosferycznych. Ponadto autor przedstawił model analityczny pozwalający na przewidywanie kierunku deformacji oraz zaprezentował wyniki badań eksperymentalnych nad formowaniem termicznym.Thermal forming methods are non contact shape change methods of various elements. The methodology behind this process is formed by thermal expansion - a natural phenomenon occurring for all materials. Thermoforming allows repairing damaged bridges without necessity to dismantle their structures. This method reduces repairing time. Putting construction of a bridge to public use is a key issue in terms of logistics as this can substantially improve traffic flow on existing road or railway infrastructure with minimum disturbance to public users. This shifts into better route planning, minimizes possible delays caused by future detours incurred by road closures caused by repairs or reduction of overall road capacity. Small defects repair has also a significant influence on transport safety, arising from the approving to use of the object with full load traffic. Author of this paper shows examples of possible bridge damages and presents ways to thermoforming structural components of bridges which were damaged during the exploitation, due to the impact from moving vehicles, and as a result of extreme weather conditions. Author presents analytical model which give us opportunity to predict the direction of deformation. The results of experimental studies on thermal forming will be presented in this paper as well

Concept and experimental tests of forming thin-walled elements using a hybrid, laser-mechanical method

W niniejszym artykule autor przedstawia założenia oraz wstępne wyniki badań doświadczalnych procesu kształtowania elementów cienkościennych przy pomocy hybrydowej metody laserowo-mechanicznej. W prezentowanej metodzie została użyta nieruchoma wiązka laserowa o przekroju prostokątnym. Autor prezentuje m.in.: główną ideę metody hybrydowej, jedną z wybranych do realizacji koncepcji, projekt stanowiska oraz wykonane stanowisko do gięcia cienkościennych rur i dyfuzorów stożkowych stosowanych w budowie silników lotniczych. Docelowym materiałem badań są żarowytrzymałe nadstopy niklu Inconel 618 i Inconel 625 oraz żaroodporne stale martenzytyczne AISI 410 i AISI 325. Materiały te, ze względu na ich wysokie właściwości mechaniczne przy pracy w podwyższonej temperaturze, używane są do budowy podzespołów silników turbośmigłowych. Ze względów ekonomicznych próby zostały wykonywane na austenitycznej stali kwasoodpornej X5CrNi18-10. Prezentowana w artykule metoda hybrydowa (założenia, koncepcja, projekt) została poddana walidacji w warunkach laboratoryjnych. Zmierzono siły potrzebne do uzyskania odkształceń plastycznych w elemencie, kąt gięcia oraz ustalono temperaturę procesu. Ważną innowacją procesu jest kontrolowanie temperatury w jego trakcie. Pozwala to na zachowanie struktury wyjściowej stali, a tym samym na utrzymanie właściwości wytrzymałościowych produktu. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych badań planuje się wykonać symulacje numeryczne procesu oraz wykonać badania metalograficzne gotowych komponentów. Ponadto prowadzone badania wskazują kierunek dalszych działań. Przejawia się to m.in. w ciągłym modyfikowaniu konstrukcji oraz samego procesu. Przedstawione wyniki testów zostały poddane dyskusji. Na podstawie uzyskanych efektów zostaną zaplanowane dalsze prace nad hybrydową metodą laserowo-mechaniczną formowania elementów cienkościennych.In this paper, author presents the assumptions and preliminary results of experimental tests of the process of forming thin-walled elements using a hybrid, laser-mechanical technique. An immobile laser beam with a rectangular cross-section was used in the presented method. Author presents, among other things: the main idea of the hybrid method, one of the concepts selected for realization, design of the test stand and the station that was built for bending of thin-walled pipes and conical diffusers used in the design of aircraft engines. Inconel 618 and Inconel 625 high-temperature creep-resistant nickel superalloys and AISI 410 and AISI 325 heat-resistant martensitic steels are the target materials for testing. Due to their high mechanical properties during work at elevated temperatures, these materials are used in the construction of turboprop engine subassemblies. For economic reasons, tests were performed on X5CrNi18-10 acid-resistant austenitic steel. The hybrid method presented in the paper (assumptions, concept, design) was validated under laboratory conditions. The forces required to obtain plastic strains in the element and bending angle were measured, and the temperature of the process was determined. Temperature control throughout the process is an important innovation. It makes it possible to preserve the steel’s initial structure and thus maintain the product’s strength properties. Based on the tests performed, it is planned to conduct numerical simulations of the process and perform metallographic examinations of ready components. Moreover, the research conducted indicates the direction of further action. This is shown by, among other things, continuous modification of the design and the process itself. The presented test results are discussed. Based on obtained effects, further work on the hybrid laser-mechanical method of forming thin-walled elements will be planned

Laser-Assisted Thermomechanical Bending of Tube Profiles

The subject of the work is the analysis of thermomechanical bending process of a thin-walled tube made of X5CrNi18-10 stainless steel. The deformation is produced at elevated temperature generated with a laser beam in a specially designed experimental setup. The tube bending process consists of local heating of the tube by a moving laser beam and simultaneous kinematic enforcement of deformation with an actuator and a rotating bending arm. During experimental investigations, the resultant force of the actuator and temperature at the laser spot are recorded. In addition to experimental tests, the bending process of the tube was modelled using the finite element method in the ABAQUS program. For this purpose, the tube deformation process was divided into two sequentially coupled numerical simulations. The first one was the heat transfer analysis for a laser beam moving longitudinally over the tube surface. The second simulation described the process of mechanical bending with the time-varying temperature field obtained in the first simulation. The force and temperature recorded during experiments were used to verify the proposed numerical model. The final stress state and the deformation of the tube after the bending process were analyzed using the numerical solution. The results indicate that the proposed bending method can be successfully used in forming of the thin-walled profiles, in particular, when large bending angles and a small spring-back effect are of interest

The Influence of Treatment Parameters on the Microstructure, Properties and Bend Angle of Laser Formed Construction Bars

In this paper, the authors presented the research on laser formed construction bars made of C20 steel on the example of the T-shape. The CO2 TRUMPF TruFlow 6000 laser was used in the research. The influence of the laser treatment parameters (the power and speed of the heat source) on the volume of the bend angle, structure and properties of the elements (hardness and tensile strength) was examined. On the basis of the results obtained from the conducted experiments, the authors suggested a way of selecting treatment parameters so that the element should meet the strength assumptions at the allowable time of its implementation

Laser-assisted forming of thin-walled profiles

W ostatnich latach badane są procesy kształtowania plastycznego z wykorzystaniem lokalnego nagrzewania laserowego. Nagrzewanie ma na celu umożliwienie lub ułatwienie obróbki plastycznej materiałów, które wykazują niekorzystne właściwości, jak: kruchość, silne efekty umocnienia czy powrotnego odkształcenia sprężystego. Zaprezentowane badania dotyczą hybrydowego termo-mechanicznego kształtowania plastycznego elementów cienkościennych z użyciem lokalnego nagrzewania materiału wiązką laserową. Docelowo prace są nakierowane na formowanie elementów ze stopów wykorzystywanych w przemyśle lotniczym takich, jak nadstopy niklu Inconel 625, Inconel 718, a także wysokostopowe stale martenzytyczne AISI 410 i AISI 325. Wstępne badania przeprowadzono z użyciem stali nierdzewnej X5CrNi18-10. Prace eksperymentalne i symulacje numeryczne objęły zachowanie się płaskowników o grubości 1 mm, poddanych działaniu obciążenia mechanicznego w układzie wysięgnikowym i nagrzewanych wiązką lasera CO2, przemieszczaną od swobodnego końca próbki do miejsca jej zamocowania. Doświadczalnie wykazano możliwość stosunkowo łatwego uzyskiwania dużych deformacji giętnych dzięki zastosowaniu nagrzewania laserowego. Zweryfikowane eksperymentalnie symulacje numeryczne, które wykonano metodą elementów skończonych, ujawniły intensywne płynięcie plastyczne warstwy ogrzewanej wiązką laserową. Towarzyszyło temu przemieszczanie się osi obojętnej przekroju. W kolejnym etapie badane było gięcie rur cienkościennych na specjalnie skonstruowanym stanowisku. Umożliwia ono kontrolowane wprowadzanie obciążenia mechanicznego, ogrzewanie materiału ruchomą wiązką laserową i wymuszanie zadanej deformacji zgodnie ze schematem kinematycznym urządzenia.Forming processes assisted by localised laser heating are studied in recent years. Heating is used to make it possible or facilitate forming of materials, which exhibit such adverse properties as: brittleness, effects of high work-hardening or a high elastic spring-back. The hereby presented investigations concern the hybrid thermo-mechanical forming of thin-walled parts using local heating of the material by the laser beam. The research is aimed at forming of parts from materials used in the aviation industry, such as the nickel-base super-alloys Inconel 625, Inconel 718, and also martensitic super-alloys AISI 410 and AISI 325. Preliminary investigations are conducted using X5CrNil8-10 (1.4301) stainless steel. Experimental study and numerical simulations cover the behaviour of thin beams 1 mm thick, subjected to mechanical load in the cantilever arrangement and heated by the CO2 laser beam moving from the free end of the sample towards its fixture. The possibility of obtaining large bending deformations relatively easily due to the application of laser beam is demonstrated experimentally. Experimentally verified finite element numerical simulations show the intense plastic flow of the material layer heated by the laser beam. It is accompanied by a shift of the cross-section neutral axis of the beam. Bending of thin-walled tubes in a specially designed device is studied in the next step. It allows introducing mechanical loading in a controlled manner, heating the material by a moving laser beam and forcing the required deformation according to the kinematic scheme of the device