The study of obstructional factors of the female promotion to a manager

The purpose of this paper is to explore obstructional factors of the female promotion reflected in employees' descriptions about their preference for male or female managers. We used an analytic framework by Ragins and Sundstrom (1989), based on four levels of analysis : societal, organizational, interpersonal, and individual. Seven hundred and eighty-five employees (467 males and 318 females) in several industrial organizations answered the question which asked them whether they wanted to have a male or a female supervisor, and described the reasons by open ended question. A little over fifty percent of male subjects and about thirty percent of the females prefered male supervisors. The following results were obtained from content analysis about the reasons of the male preference : 1) The reasons were classified under 23 categories belonged in either four levels. 2) Subjects in managerial position prefered a male manager from mainly reasons belonged in societal (eg. 'Because many women have the responsibility for their family'), organizational (eg. 'In our company, all managers were males'), or individual level (eg. 'Women don't have the ability to be a leader'), while the other subjects mainly refered to interpersonal (eg. 'It is difficult to communicate with a female superviser') or individual levels'. 3) Subjects' sex or their attitude toward sex roles didn't associate with the kind of reasons of male preference. The direction of further study was discussed

Commitment Processes in Close Relationships

The purpose of this study was to indentify a variety of factors that affect satisfaction and commitment on close relationship. We attempted to explain the process by which close relationships develop and deteriorate over time, by testing the adequacy of the investment model using longitudinal self-reported data from college students. The result indicated that changes over time in commitment were more strongly predictive of stay/leave behaviors than were other investment model factors. Thus, stay/leave behaviors were mediated by changes over time in commitment. Contrary to the investment model, variations in rewards contributed significantly to the prediction of satisfaction, but costs did not. And sex differences in the variables contributed to commitment was found; whereas men increased commitment because of increases in satisfaction, women promoted because of increases in satisfaction and investment size. These findings suggested that it is necessary to revise the investment model. From this point of view, we discussed the generalizability and limitation of investment model and sex differences in the process of stay/leave behaviors

The effect of gender salience on self-definition and evaluation of others

This study investigated the effects of gender membership salience on individuals' selfdefinition, self-concept, evaluation of others, and selection of people as their group members. They were assigned to one of two discussion topics which consisted of two males and two females; 'the reason why women cannot be promoted to be a manager' or 'improvement of the Orientation Camp'. Gender were more salient in the former topic, and less salient in the latter topic. According to social identity theory, high gender salient group members would mention more their gender in spontaneous responses to the question 'Who am I', define themselves more gender stereotypically, and exibit ingroup bias in evaluation of others than low gender salient groups. The result about self-definition supported the social identity theory. In high gender salient groups, men defined themselvs more masculine and women defined themselvs less masculine or more feminine than in low salient groups. Especially men and women with traditional attitude toward sex-roles defined themselves more stereotypically than non-traditionals. In self-definition, women used gender-schema (Bem, 1985) and men used group-schema (Markus, et. al, 1982) regardless of gender salience level. Ingroup bias in evaliation of others were exibited by women but not by men regardless of gender salience level

A Novel Approach for the Design of Fault-Tolerant Routing Algorithms in NoCs: Passage of Faulty Nodes, Not Always Detour

Due to the faults in system fabrication and run time, designing an efficient fault-tolerant routing algorithm with the property of deadlock-freeness is crucial for realizing dependable Network-on-Chip (NoC) systems with high communication performance. In this chapter, we introduce a novel approach for the design of fault-tolerant routing algorithms in NoCs. The common idea of the fault-tolerant routing has been undoubtedly to detour faulty nodes, while our approach allows passing through faulty nodes with the slight modification of NoC architecture. As a design example, we present an XY-based routing algorithm with the passage function. To investigate the effect of the approach, we compare the communication performance (i.e. average latency) of the XY-based algorithm with well-known region-based algorithms under the condition of with and without virtual channels. Finally, we provide possible directions of future research on the fault-tolerant routing with the passage function

The Regulative Factors of Gender Differences on the Promotion Rates in Japnaese Business Organizations

This paper examines the effects of some gender-related factors (namely, the gender congruency of the type of business, the population ratio of female employees to their male counterparts, and the organizational climate) on the gender differences of the ratio of managerial grade employees to the entire work force, by analysing the organizational demographics. The differences of the average age and average years of continuous service between male employees and female employees were adopted as the indices of the organizational climate. Organizational demographics of 566 enterprises sampled from a job-recruiting information book were coded into certain categories relating to the above factors. Three hundred and four adult people were asked to rate the degree of gender congruency of each type of business. Results show no significant effects of gender congruency of the type of business nor effects of the gender population ratio on the sex difference of the ratio of managerial grade employees. The smaller the sex differences of the average age, the higher the ratio of female managerial employees. These findings are discussed in comparison with previous studies

6時間局所冷却保存した心停止ドナー肺による肺移植の基礎的研究 : 病理組織学的観点から

取得学位 : 博士（医学）, 学位授与番号 : 医博甲第1713号 , 学位授与年月日 : 平成17年6月30日, 学位授与大学 : 金沢大

Does one's dominant concept of self depend on differences in the interpersonal situation?

The Japanese are said to exhibit fundamental differences in their interpersonal attitudes and interpersonal behaviour, according to whether they are interacting as members of an 'in-group', or whether they are interacting with members of an 'out-group'. Markus and Kitayama (1991) advocate the concept of self based on independence, and the concept of self based on interdependence, as conceptual tools with which to account for cultural differences and individual differences in social behavior. The object of this study is to examine how the dominant concept of the self among the Japanese differs with respect to situations involving 'in-groups' and 'out-groups'. In Study 1,we have integrated and refined various existing scales of measurement which determine the type of dominant concept of self (Kitayama et ai., 1991; Morikawa, 1992; Takata, 1992), and have devised a scale for analysing the dominant concept of self, according as it operates in situations involving 'in-groups' and in situations involving 'out-groups'. In Study 2,we set up as a hypothesis an interpersonal conflict situation relating respectively to 'in-groups' and 'out-groups' and investigate the efficacy of the dominant concept of self which influences the evaluation of strategies for coping with the conflict. Generally speaking, in 'in-group' situations, an attitude of compromise is favoured, while in 'out-group' situations, an attitude of 'doing one's own thing'. This tendency was strikingly shown in the category of the concept of self based on interdependence. In addition, we examined the kind of differences that can be found in the concept of self among the Japanese as this affects 'in-group' situations and 'out-group' situations. While the difference of situation did not have influence on the concept of self based on independence, the concept of self based on interdependence showed a striking dominance in situations involving 'in-group', compared with situations involving 'out-groups'

Comparative study of closeness-changing based on the cultural view of self in Japan and United States

The purpose of this study is to investigate both effects of the cultural differences and the cultural view of self on closeness changing for the close-partners (e. g., friends, family, romantic partner) in the specific situations. On the basis of Markus & Kitayama (1991), we assumed that the interpretation of the situations, which changes closeness, would be affected by the cultural view of self. We hypothesized that in the situations, which sampled in Japan, the Japanese subjects would report greater change in closeness level than the Americans, and the subjects who had the interdependent view of self would show greater change in closeness level than the individuals having the independent view. The results shows that the Japanese's change level of closeness were higher in the situations that imply an attitude of sympathies, the expectation of the social role, and suggesting his/her weak points, than the American's. On the other hand, the American subjects change their closeness highly in the situations that impact upon individual's independence, the pride and the self-confidence, than the Japanese subjects. In addition, the cultural differences but not cultural view of self explained this difference. Implications of these results are discussed

Interdependence in the parent and adolescent child relationship

On the basis of Thibaut and Kelley's interdependence theory, this study attempted to clarify the structure of parent-child relationship, one of the most vital personal relationships. We created three hypothetical decision-making situations (vignettes) that would occur for the majority of relationships between parents and their adolescent children. Each situation can be conceptually described in terms of 2×2 matrix format, in which both a parent and a child have two behavioral alternatives to choose from. The subjects were first graders at junior- and senior-high school and their parents. Both the parent and the child expressed their own preferences for each of the possible four combinations of the behavioral alternatives as to the three vignettes. Control scores were calculated for reflexive control (RC), fate control (FC), and behavior control (BC). Results indicated that; (1) Interdependence patterns were quite stable across the three situations, suggesting that parent and child are interdependent more at the dispositional than the given matrix level; (2) The parents showed consistent interdependence patterns with almost no RC, but a high degree of BC. High school children, however, indicated much higher degrees of RC and FC compared with Junior High school children. These results suggest that children become more self-interested and try to exert their control as they get older, while the parents will basically be happy as long as it corresponds with what the children want to do

The Impact of Falling in Love : psychological adjustment and self-concept change

Through this research, we studied how love affairs affect the self identity and mental health of young people. We classified 109 male and 193 female undergraduate students into people in love and people not in love based on questionnaires completed by the students. As a results of comparing both groups, those who were in love reported high self-esteem, fullness scores and low depression scores in comparison with those who not in love. Those who were in love continuously tended to mark high brightness, friendliness, honesty, sensitivity, and the opposite sex role scores in comparison with those who were not in love. We discussed about the characteristics of young people in progress of personal relationships