Forever young: Mechanisms of natural anoxia tolerance and potential links to longevity

While mammals cannot survive oxygen deprivation for more than a few minutes without sustaining severe organ damage, some animals have mastered anaerobic life. Freshwater turtles belonging to the Trachemys and Chrysemys genera are the champion facultative anaerobes of the vertebrate world, often surviving without oxygen for many weeks at a time. The physiological and biochemical mechanisms that underlie anoxia tolerance in turtles include profound metabolic rate depression, post-translational modification of proteins, strong antioxidant defenses, activation of specific stress-responsive transcription factors, and enhanced expression of cyto-protective proteins. Turtles are also known for their incredible longevity and display characteristics of “negligible senescence.” We propose that the robust stress-tolerance mechanisms that permit long term anaerobiosis by turtles may also support the longevity of these animals. Many of the mechanisms involved in natural anoxia tolerance, such as hypometabolism or the induction of various protective proteins/pathways, have been shown to play important roles in mammalian oxygen-related diseases and improved understanding of how cells survive without oxygen could aid in the understanding and treatment of various pathological conditions that involve hypoxia or oxidative stress. In the present review we discuss the recent advances made in understanding the molecular nature of anoxia tolerance in turtles and the potential links between this tolerance and longevity

Metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for production of germacrene A, a precursor of beta-elemene

Beta-elemene, a sesquiterpene and the major component of the medicinal herb Curcuma wenyujin, has antitumor activity against various types of cancer and could potentially serve as a potent antineoplastic drug. However, its current mode of production through extraction from plants has been inefficient and suffers from limited natural resources. Here, we engineered a yeast cell factory for the sustainable production of germacrene A, which can be transformed to beta-elemene by a one-step chemical reaction in vitro. Two heterologous germacrene A synthases (GASs) converting farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) to germacrene A were evaluated in yeast for their ability to produce germacrene A. Thereafter, several metabolic engineering strategies were used to improve the production level. Overexpression of truncated 3-hydroxyl-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase and fusion of FPP synthase with GAS, led to a sixfold increase in germacrene A production in shake-flask culture. Finally, 190.7 mg/l of germacrene A was achieved. The results reported in this study represent the highest titer of germacrene A reported to date. These results provide a basis for creating an efficient route for further industrial application re-placing the traditional extraction of beta-elemene from plant sources

Metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for production of very long chain fatty acid-derived chemicals

Production of chemicals and biofuels through microbial fermentation is an economical and sustainable alternative for traditional chemical synthesis. Here we present the construction of a Saccharomyces cerevisiae platform strain for high-level production of very-long-chain fatty acid (VLCFA)-derived chemicals. Through rewiring the native fatty acid elongation system and implementing a heterologous Mycobacteria FAS I system, we establish an increased biosynthesis of VLCFAs in S. cerevisiae. VLCFAs can be selectively modified towards the fatty alcohol docosanol (C22H46O) by expressing a specific fatty acid reductase. Expression of this enzyme is shown to impair cell growth due to consumption of VLCFA-CoAs. We therefore implement a dynamic control strategy for separating cell growth from docosanol production. We successfully establish high-level and selective docosanol production of 83.5 mg l(-1) in yeast. This approach will provide a universal strategy towards the production of similar high value chemicals in a more scalable, stable and sustainable manner

Adaptive mutations in sugar metabolism restore growth on glucose in a pyruvate decarboxylase negative yeast strain

Background: A Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain carrying deletions in all three pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC) genes (also called Pdc negative yeast) represents a non-ethanol producing platform strain for the production of pyruvate derived biochemicals. However, it cannot grow on glucose as the sole carbon source, and requires supplementation of C2 compounds to the medium in order to meet the requirement for cytosolic acetyl-CoA for biosynthesis of fatty acids and ergosterol. Results: In this study, a Pdc negative strain was adaptively evolved for improved growth in glucose medium via serial transfer, resulting in three independently evolved strains, which were able to grow in minimal medium containing glucose as the sole carbon source at the maximum specific rates of 0.138, 0.148, 0.141 h(-1), respectively. Several genetic changes were identified in the evolved Pdc negative strains by genomic DNA sequencing. Among these genetic changes, 4 genes were found to carry point mutations in at least two of the evolved strains: MTH1 encoding a negative regulator of the glucose-sensing signal transduction pathway, HXT2 encoding a hexose transporter, CIT1 encoding a mitochondrial citrate synthase, and RPD3 encoding a histone deacetylase. Reverse engineering of the non-evolved Pdc negative strain through introduction of the MTH1(81D) allele restored its growth on glucose at a maximum specific rate of 0.053 h(-1) in minimal medium with 2% glucose, and the CIT1 deletion in the reverse engineered strain further increased the maximum specific growth rate to 0.069 h(-1). Conclusions: In this study, possible evolving mechanisms of Pdc negative strains on glucose were investigated by genome sequencing and reverse engineering. The non-synonymous mutations in MTH1 alleviated the glucose repression by repressing expression of several hexose transporter genes. The non-synonymous mutations in HXT2 and CIT1 may function in the presence of mutated MTH1 alleles and could be related to an altered central carbon metabolism in order to ensure production of cytosolic acetyl-CoA in the Pdc negative strain

Activation of the unfolded protein response during anoxia exposure in the turtle Trachemys scripta elegans

Red-eared slider turtles, Trachemys scripta elegans, can survive for several weeks without oxygen when submerged in cold water. We hypothesized that anaerobiosis is aided by adaptive up-regulation of the unfolded protein response (UPR), a stress-responsive pathway that is activated by accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and functions to restore ER homeostasis. RT-PCR, western immunoblotting and DNA-binding assays were used to quantify the responses and/or activation status of UPR-responsive genes and proteins in turtle tissues after animal exposure to 5 or 20 h of anoxic submergence at 4 C. The phosphorylation state of protein kinase-like ER kinase (PERK) (a UPR-regulated kinase) and eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α) increased by 1.43-2.50 fold in response to anoxia in turtle heart, kidney, and liver. Activation of the PERK-regulated transcription factor, activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4), during anoxia was documented by elevated atf4 transcripts and total ATF4 protein (1.60-2.43 fold), increased nuclear ATF4 content, and increased DNA-binding activity (1.44-2.32 fold). ATF3 and GADD34 (downstream targets of ATF4) also increased by 1.38-3.32 fold in heart and liver under anoxia, and atf3 transcripts were also elevated in heart. Two characteristic chaperones of the UPR, GRP78, and GRP94, also responded positively to anoxia with strong increases in both the transcript and protein levels. The data demonstrate that the UPR is activated in turtle heart, kidney, and liver in response to anoxia, suggesting that this pathway mediates an integrated stress response to protect tissues during oxygen deprivation. © 2012 Springer Science+Business Media New York

Production of natural products through metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Many high-value metabolites are produced in nature by organisms that are not ideal for large-scale production. Therefore, interest exists in expressing the biosynthetic pathways of these compounds in organisms that are more suitable for industrial production. Recent years have seen developments in both the discovery of various biosynthetic pathways, as well as development of metabolic engineering tools that allow reconstruction of complex pathways in microorganisms. In the present review we discuss recent advances in reconstruction of the biosynthetic pathways of various high-value products in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a commonly used industrial microorganism. Key achievements in the production of different isoprenoids, aromatics and polyketides are presented and the metabolic engineering strategies underlying these accomplishments are discussed

Activation of the carbohydrate response element binding protein (ChRESP) in response to anoxia in the turtle Trachemys scripta elegans

Background: ChREBP (carbohydrate response element binding protein) is a glucose-responsive transcription factor that is known to be an important regulator of glycolytic and lipogenic genes in response to glucose. We hypothesized that activation of ChREBP could be relevant to anoxia survival by the anoxia-tolerant turtle, Trachemys scripta elegans. Methods: Expression of ChREBP in response to 5 and 20 h of anoxia was examined using RT-PCR and Western immunoblotting. In addition, subcellular localization and DNA-binding activity of ChREBP protein were assessed and transcript levels of liver pyruvate kinase (LPK), a downstream gene under ChREBP control were quantified using RT-PCR. Results: ChREBP was anoxia-responsive in kidney and liver, with transcript levels increasing by 1.2-1.8 fold in response to anoxia and protein levels increasing by 1.8-1.9 fold. Enhanced nuclear presence under anoxia was also observed in both tissues by 22-2.8 fold. A 4.2 fold increase in DNA binding activity of ChREBP was also observed in liver in response to 5 h of anoxia. In addition, transcript levels of LPK increased by 2.1 fold in response to 5 h of anoxia in the liver. Conclusions: The results suggest that activation of ChREBP in response to anoxia might be a crucial factor for anoxia survival in turtle liver by contributing to elevated glycolytic flux in the initial phases of oxygen limitation. General significance: This study provides the first demonstration of activation of ChREBP in response to anoxia in a natural model of anoxia tolerance, further improving our understanding of the molecular nature of anoxia tolerance

Activation of the carbohydrate response element binding protein (ChRESP) in response to anoxia in the turtle Trachemys scripta elegans

Background: ChREBP (carbohydrate response element binding protein) is a glucose-responsive transcription factor that is known to be an important regulator of glycolytic and lipogenic genes in response to glucose. We hypothesized that activation of ChREBP could be relevant to anoxia survival by the anoxia-tolerant turtle, Trachemys scripta elegans. Methods: Expression of ChREBP in response to 5 and 20 h of anoxia was examined using RT-PCR and Western immunoblotting. In addition, subcellular localization and DNA-binding activity of ChREBP protein were assessed and transcript levels of liver pyruvate kinase (LPK), a downstream gene under ChREBP control were quantified using RT-PCR. Results: ChREBP was anoxia-responsive in kidney and liver, with transcript levels increasing by 1.2-1.8 fold in response to anoxia and protein levels increasing by 1.8-1.9 fold. Enhanced nuclear presence under anoxia was also observed in both tissues by 22-2.8 fold. A 4.2 fold increase in DNA binding activity of ChREBP was also observed in liver in response to 5 h of anoxia. In addition, transcript levels of LPK increased by 2.1 fold in response to 5 h of anoxia in the liver. Conclusions: The results suggest that activation of ChREBP in response to anoxia might be a crucial factor for anoxia survival in turtle liver by contributing to elevated glycolytic flux in the initial phases of oxygen limitation. General significance: This study provides the first demonstration of activation of ChREBP in response to anoxia in a natural model of anoxia tolerance, further improving our understanding of the molecular nature of anoxia tolerance

Molecular mechanisms of turtle anoxia tolerance: A role for NF-κB

The transcription factor NF-κB has recently emerged as a central regulator of the vertebrate stress response, controlling hundreds of different effector genes. We hypothesized that this transcription factor would be activated during oxygen deprivation in the anoxia-tolerant freshwater turtle, Trachemys scripta elegans. Western immunoblotting was used to examine the relative expression levels of the phosphorylated NF-κB inhibitor, IκBα, under normoxic and anoxic conditions in turtle tissues. Elevated levels of the phosphorylated IκB were found in the liver in response to 5 h of anoxia, suggesting a possible activation of the NF-κB pathway. Analysis of the NF-κB subunits, p50 and p65, showed that both mRNA transcripts and protein levels of p50 increased during anoxia, whereas p65 protein levels also increased significantly. Changes in the relative levels of the NF-κB subunits in the nucleus, and changes in the DNA-binding activity of NF-κB were also assessed and were found to be elevated in response to anoxia. Finally, reverse-transcriptase PCR was used to measure mRNA transcript levels of selected downstream target genes under NF-κB control and these were elevated under anoxia. These findings show that the NF-κB pathway is activated in turtle liver during anoxia and support a role for this transcription factor in the anoxia tolerance of T. s. elegans