TDL--- A Type Description Language for Constraint-Based Grammars

This paper presents \tdl, a typed feature-based representation language and inference system. Type definitions in \tdl\ consist of type and feature constraints over the boolean connectives. \tdl\ supports open- and closed-world reasoning over types and allows for partitions and incompatible types. Working with partially as well as with fully expanded types is possible. Efficient reasoning in \tdl\ is accomplished through specialized modules.Comment: Will Appear in Proc. COLING-9

TDL : a type description language for HPSG. - Part 1: Overview

Unification-based grammar formalisms have become the predominant paradigm in natural language processing NLP and computational linguistics CL. Their success stems from the fact that they can be seen as high-level declarative programming languages for linguists, which allow them to express linguistic knowledge in a monotonic fashion. More over, such formalisms can be given a precise set theoretical semantics. This paper presents mathcal{TDL}, a typed featurebased language and inference system, which is specically designed to support highly lexicalized grammar theories like HPSG, FUG, or CUG. mathcal{TDL} allows the user to define possibly recursive hierarchically ordered types consisting of type constraints and feature constraints over the boolean connectives wedge, vee, and neg. mathcal{TDL} distinguishes between avm types (open-world reasoning), sort types (closed-world reasoning), built-in types and atoms, and allows the declaration of partitions and incompatible types. Working with partially as well as with fully expanded types is possible, both at definition time and at run time. mathcal{TDL} is incremental, i.e., it allows the redefinition of types and the use of undefined types. Efficient reasoning is accomplished through four specialized reasoners

Classification and representation of types in TDL

TDL is a typed feature-based representation language and inference system, specifically designed to support highly lexicalized constraint-based grammar theories. Type definitions in TDL consist of type and feature constraints over the full Boolean connectives together with coreferences, thus making TDL Turing-complete. TDL provides open- and closed-world reasoning over types. Working with partially as well as with fully expanded types is possible. Efficient reasoning in TDL is accomplished through specialized modules. In this paper, we will highlight the type/inheritance hierarchy module of TDL and show how we represent conjunctively and disjunctively defined types. Negated types and incompatible types are handled by specialized bottom symbols. Redefining a type only leads to the redefinition of the dependent types, and not to the redefinition of the whole grammar/lexicon. Undefined types are nothing special. Reasoning over the type hierarchy is partially realized by a bit vector encoding of types, similar to the one used in Aït-Kaci\u27s LOGIN. However, the underlying semantics does not harmonize with the open-world assumption of TDL. Thus, we have to generalize the GLB/LUB operation to account for this fact. The system, as presented in the paper, has been fully implemented in Common Lisp and is an integrated part of a large NL system. It has been installed and successfully employed at other sites and runs on various platforms

Typed feature structures, definite equivalences, greatest model semantics, and nonmonotonicity

Typed feature logics have been employed as description languages in modern type-oriented grammar theories like HPSG and have laid the theoretical foundations for many implemented systems. However, recursivity pose severe problems and have been addressed through specialized powerdomain constructions which depend on the particular view of the logician. In this paper, we argue that definite equivalences introduced by Smolka can serve as the formal basis for arbitrarily formalized typed feature structures and typed feature-based grammars/lexicons, as employed in, e.g., TFS or TDL. The idea here is that type definitions in such systems can be transformed into an equivalent definite program, whereas the meaning of the definite program then is identified with the denotation of the type system. Now, models of a definite program P can be characterized by the set of ground atoms which are logical consequences of the definite program. These models are ordered by subset inclusion and, for reasons that will become clear, we propose the greatest model as the intended interpretation of P, or equivalent, as the denotation of the associated type system. Our transformational approach has also a great impact on nonmonotonically defined types, since under this interpretation, we can view the type hierarchy as a pure transport medium, allowing us to get rid of the transitivity of type information (inheritance), and yielding a perfectly monotonic definite program

Typed feature formalisms as a common basis for linguistic specification

Typed feature formalisms (TFF) play an increasingly important role in CL and NLP. Many of these systems are inspired by Pollard and Sag\u27s work on Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG), which has shown that a great deal of syntax and semantics can be neatly encoded within TFF. However, syntax and semantics are not the only areas in which TFF can be beneficially employed. In this paper, I will show that TFF can also be used as a means to model finite automata (FA) and to perform certain types of logical inferencing. In particular, I will (i) describe how FA can be defined and processed within TFF and (ii) propose a conservative extension to HPSG, which allows for a restricted form of semantic processing within TFF, so that the construction of syntax and semantics can be intertwined with the simplification of the logical form of an utterance. The approach which I propose provides a uniform, HPSG-oriented framework for different levels of linguistic processing, including allomorphy and morphotactics, syntax, semantics, and logical form simplification

Derivation without lexical rules

In Krieger and Nerbonne (1992) we showed how to get rid of LEXICAL RULES for DERIVATION, as they are explicated by Pollard and Sag (1987) in HPSG I, Ch. 8.2. We proposed a treatment of derivation not by means of traditional lexical rules but instead in terms of PRINCIPLES, RULES, and LEXICAL ENTRIES entirely in the spirit of HPSG, together with unification-based inheritance of a very sophisticated kind. One major disadvantage of this approach was the employment of complex functions in certain principles. In this paper I first extend the old approach and then show how to eliminate these functional dependencies in the domain of derivational morphology by going back to simpler ones like cons, first, and rest. But this simplification is only achieved if we assume more complex feature structures than the ones described in Krieger and Nerbonne (e.g., by introducing two different SUBCAT features) and by proposing modified versions of the old Constituent Order Principle and the Subcategorization Principle for morphology. In addition, I postulate a hierarchy of affixes which is cross-classified, for instance, according to the effects these affixes contribute to the subcategorization information of a compound word. The structure of the paper is as follows. We start with a very short introduction about the residence of word-formation rules in modern feature-based theories. After that we present our approach to derivational morphology which is distinguished in that it gives up the notion of lexical rule as a single entity (operator). We describe the structure of affixes and words (e.g., which attributes are appropriate?) and introduce the relevant principles and the rule schema of our approach to derivational morphology. The section shows how to reduce functional dependencies to a minimum at the cost of the size of our feature structures. We also present a technique which allows us to state relational dependencies as they are called by HPSG in a functional manner. In the next section we show how the whole treatment works by applying it to tough phenomena from prefixation and suffixation. The section presents many examples, which might serve as a how to guide to a practitioner. After that we explain the idea which will lead us to the affix hierarchy. We will see that the affix hierarchy is inspired by the work of HPSG on structured lexicons (i.e., by the hierarchy of lexical types). A lot of examples will again be given throughout this section. We finish the paper by summarizing our approach and by saying a few words about the topics which we will tackle next

Integration of prosodic and grammatical information in the analysis of dialogs

The analysis of spoken dialogs requires the analysis of complete multi-sentence turns. Especially, the segmentation of turns in sentential or phrasal segments is a problem. In this paper we present a system for turn analysis. It is based on an extension of HPSG grammar for turns and takes into account extra-linguistic prosodic information. We show how this information can be integrated and represented in the grammar, and how it is used to reduce the search space in parsing

A bag of useful techniques for efficient and robust parsing

This paper describes new and improved techniques which help a unification-based parser to process input efficiently and robustly. We show that combining these methods leads to a speed-up in parsing time of more than an order of magnitude. The methods are correct in the sense that none of them rule out legal rule applications

Experimental evidence for excess entropy discontinuities in glass-forming solutions

Glass transition temperatures T_g are investigated in aqueous binary and multi-component solutions consisting of citric acid, calcium nitrate (Ca(NO_3)_2), malonic acid, raffinose, and ammonium bisulfate (NH_4HSO_4) using a differential scanning calorimeter. Based on measured glass transition temperatures of binary aqueous mixtures and fitted binary coefficients, the T_g of multi-component systems can be predicted using mixing rules. However, the experimentally observed T_g in multi-component solutions show considerable deviations from two theoretical approaches considered. The deviations from these predictions are explained in terms of the molar excess mixing entropy difference between the supercooled liquid and glassy state at T_g. The multi-component mixtures involve contributions to these excess mixing entropies that the mixing rules do not take into account

Efflorescence of Ammonium Sulfate and Coated Ammonium Sulfate Particles: Evidence for Surface Nucleation

Using optical microscopy, we investigated the efflorescence of ammonium sulfate (AS) in aqueous AS and in aqueous 1:1 and 8:1 (by dry weight) poly(ethylene glycol)-400 (PEG-400)/AS particles deposited on a hydrophobically coated slide. Aqueous PEG-400/AS particles exposed to decreasing relative humidity (RH) exhibit a liquid−liquid phase separation below 90% RH with the PEG-400-rich phase surrounding the aqueous AS inner phase. Pure aqueous AS particles effloresced in the RH range from 36.3% to 43.7%, in agreement with literature data (31−48% RH). In contrast, aqueous 1:1 (by dry weight) PEG-400/AS particles with diameters of the AS phase from 7.2 to 19.2 μm effloresced between 26.8% and 33.9% RH and aqueous 8:1 (by dry weight) PEG-400/AS particles with diameters of the AS phase from 1.8 to 7.3 μm between 24.3% and 29.3% RH. Such low efflorescence relative humidity (ERH) values have never been reached before for AS particles of this size range. We show that these unprecedented low ERHs of AS in PEG-400/AS particles could not possibly be explained by the presence of low amounts of PEG-400 in the aqueous AS phase, by a potential inhibition of water evaporation via anomalously slow diffusion through the PEG coating, or by different time scales between various experimental techniques. High-speed photography of the efflorescence process allowed the development of the AS crystallization fronts within the particles to be monitored with millisecond time resolution. The nucleation sites were inferred from the initial crystal growth sites. Analysis of the probability distribution of initial sites of 31 and 19 efflorescence events for pure AS and 1:1 (by dry weight) PEG-400/AS particles, respectively, showed that the particle volume can be excluded as the preferred nucleation site in the case of pure AS particles. For aqueous 1:1 (by dry weight) PEG-400/AS particles preferential AS nucleation in the PEG phase and at the PEG/AS/substrate contact line can be excluded. On the basis of this probability analysis of efflorescence events together with the AS ERH values of pure aqueous AS and aqueous PEG-400/AS particles aforementioned, we suggest that in pure aqueous AS particles nucleation starts at the surface of the particles and attribute the lower ERH values observed for aqueous PEG-400/AS particles to the suppression of the surface-induced nucleation process. Our results suggest that surface-induced nucleation is likely to also occur during the efflorescence of atmospheric AS aerosol particles, possibly constituting the dominating nucleation pathway