The mechanism of condensation in a turbulent steam-air mixture in a jet-type condenser

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Developmental epileptic encephalopathy in DLG4-related synaptopathy

Abstract: Objective: The postsynaptic density protein of excitatory neurons PSD-95 is encoded by discs large MAGUK scaffold protein 4 (DLG4), de novo pathogenic variants of which lead to DLG4-related synaptopathy. The major clinical features are developmental delay, intellectual disability (ID), hypotonia, sleep disturbances, movement disorders, and epilepsy. Even though epilepsy is present in 50% of the individuals, it has not been investigated in detail. We describe here the phenotypic spectrum of epilepsy and associated comorbidities in patients with DLG4-related synaptopathy. Methods: We included 35 individuals with a DLG4 variant and epilepsy as part of a multicenter study. The DLG4 variants were detected by the referring laboratories. The degree of ID, hypotonia, developmental delay, and motor disturbances were evaluated by the referring clinician. Data on awake and sleep electroencephalography (EEG) and/or video-polygraphy and brain magnetic resonance imaging were collected. Antiseizure medication response was retrospectively assessed by the referring clinician. Results: A large variety of seizure types was reported, although focal seizures were the most common. Encephalopathy related to status epilepticus during slow-wave sleep (ESES)/developmental epileptic encephalopathy with spike-wave activation during sleep (DEE-SWAS) was diagnosed in >25% of the individuals. All but one individual presented with neurodevelopmental delay. Regression in verbal and/or motor domains was observed in all individuals who suffered from ESES/DEE-SWAS, as well as some who did not. We could not identify a clear genotype-phenotype relationship even between individuals with the same DLG4 variants. Significance: Our study shows that a subgroup of individuals with DLG4-related synaptopathy have DEE, and approximately one fourth of them have ESES/DEE-SWAS. Our study confirms DEE as part of the DLG4-related phenotypic spectrum. Occurrence of ESES/DEE-SWAS in DLG4-related synaptopathy requires proper investigation with sleep EEG

Developmental epileptic encephalopathy in <i>DLG4</i>-related synaptopathy

Objective: The postsynaptic density protein of excitatory neurons PSD-95 is encoded by discs large MAGUK scaffold protein 4 (DLG4), de novo pathogenic variants of which lead to DLG4-related synaptopathy. The major clinical features are developmental delay, intellectual disability (ID), hypotonia, sleep disturbances, movement disorders, and epilepsy. Even though epilepsy is present in 50% of the individuals, it has not been investigated in detail. We describe here the phenotypic spectrum of epilepsy and associated comorbidities in patients with DLG4-related synaptopathy. Methods: We included 35 individuals with a DLG4 variant and epilepsy as part of a multicenter study. The DLG4 variants were detected by the referring laboratories. The degree of ID, hypotonia, developmental delay, and motor disturbances were evaluated by the referring clinician. Data on awake and sleep electroencephalography (EEG) and/or video-polygraphy and brain magnetic resonance imaging were collected. Antiseizure medication response was retrospectively assessed by the referring clinician. Results: A large variety of seizure types was reported, although focal seizures were the most common. Encephalopathy related to status epilepticus during slow-wave sleep (ESES)/developmental epileptic encephalopathy with spike-wave activation during sleep (DEE-SWAS) was diagnosed in >25% of the individuals. All but one individual presented with neurodevelopmental delay. Regression in verbal and/or motor domains was observed in all individuals who suffered from ESES/DEE-SWAS, as well as some who did not. We could not identify a clear genotype-phenotype relationship even between individuals with the same DLG4 variants. Significance: Our study shows that a subgroup of individuals with DLG4-related synaptopathy have DEE, and approximately one fourth of them have ESES/DEE-SWAS. Our study confirms DEE as part of the DLG4-related phenotypic spectrum. Occurrence of ESES/DEE-SWAS in DLG4-related synaptopathy requires proper investigation with sleep EEG

Developmental epileptic encephalopathy in <i>DLG4</i>-related synaptopathy

Objective: The postsynaptic density protein of excitatory neurons PSD-95 is encoded by discs large MAGUK scaffold protein 4 (DLG4), de novo pathogenic variants of which lead to DLG4-related synaptopathy. The major clinical features are developmental delay, intellectual disability (ID), hypotonia, sleep disturbances, movement disorders, and epilepsy. Even though epilepsy is present in 50% of the individuals, it has not been investigated in detail. We describe here the phenotypic spectrum of epilepsy and associated comorbidities in patients with DLG4-related synaptopathy. Methods: We included 35 individuals with a DLG4 variant and epilepsy as part of a multicenter study. The DLG4 variants were detected by the referring laboratories. The degree of ID, hypotonia, developmental delay, and motor disturbances were evaluated by the referring clinician. Data on awake and sleep electroencephalography (EEG) and/or video-polygraphy and brain magnetic resonance imaging were collected. Antiseizure medication response was retrospectively assessed by the referring clinician. Results: A large variety of seizure types was reported, although focal seizures were the most common. Encephalopathy related to status epilepticus during slow-wave sleep (ESES)/developmental epileptic encephalopathy with spike-wave activation during sleep (DEE-SWAS) was diagnosed in >25% of the individuals. All but one individual presented with neurodevelopmental delay. Regression in verbal and/or motor domains was observed in all individuals who suffered from ESES/DEE-SWAS, as well as some who did not. We could not identify a clear genotype-phenotype relationship even between individuals with the same DLG4 variants. Significance: Our study shows that a subgroup of individuals with DLG4-related synaptopathy have DEE, and approximately one fourth of them have ESES/DEE-SWAS. Our study confirms DEE as part of the DLG4-related phenotypic spectrum. Occurrence of ESES/DEE-SWAS in DLG4-related synaptopathy requires proper investigation with sleep EEG

Gain-of-function and loss-of-function variants in GRIA3 lead to distinct neurodevelopmental phenotypes

AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid) receptors (AMPARs) mediate fast excitatory neurotransmission in the brain. AMPARs form by homo- or heteromeric assembly of subunits encoded by the GRIA1-GRIA4 genes, of which only GRIA3 is X-chromosomal. Increasing numbers of GRIA3 missense variants are reported in patients with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD), but only a few have been examined functionally. Here, we evaluated the impact on AMPAR function of one frameshift and 43 rare missense GRIA3 variants identified in patients with NDD by electrophysiological assays. Thirty-one variants alter receptor function and show loss-of-function or gain-of-function properties, whereas 13 appeared neutral. We collected detailed clinical data from 25 patients (from 23 families) harbouring 17 of these variants. All patients had global developmental impairment, mostly moderate (9/25) or severe (12/25). Twelve patients had seizures, including focal motor (6/12), unknown onset motor (4/12), focal impaired awareness (1/12), (atypical) absence (2/12), myoclonic (5/12) and generalized tonic-clonic (1/12) or atonic (1/12) seizures. The epilepsy syndrome was classified as developmental and epileptic encephalopathy in eight patients, developmental encephalopathy without seizures in 13 patients, and intellectual disability with epilepsy in four patients. Limb muscular hypotonia was reported in 13/25, and hypertonia in 10/25. Movement disorders were reported in 14/25, with hyperekplexia or non-epileptic erratic myoclonus being the most prevalent feature (8/25). Correlating receptor functional phenotype with clinical features revealed clinical features for GRIA3-associated NDDs and distinct NDD phenotypes for loss-of-function and gain-of-function variants. Gain-of-function variants were associated with more severe outcomes: patients were younger at the time of seizure onset (median age: 1 month), hypertonic and more often had movement disorders, including hyperekplexia. Patients with loss-of-function variants were older at the time of seizure onset (median age: 16 months), hypotonic and had sleeping disturbances. Loss-of-function and gain-of-function variants were disease-causing in both sexes but affected males often carried de novo or hemizygous loss-of-function variants inherited from healthy mothers, whereas affected females had mostly de novo heterozygous gain-of-function variants.</p