Effects of olfactory enrichment on diurnal activity and stereotypic behaviour of captive Malayan tigers (Panthera tigris jacksoni)

Environment enrichment using olfactory stimuli is an emerging facet of zoo animal management, and has been shown to be effective in increasing behavioural diversity and reducing stereotypies in captive animals. This study was undertaken to document the effects of olfactory enrichment on the diurnal activity patterns and stereotypic repertoire in captive Malayan Tigers (Panthera tigris jacksoni). The diurnal behaviour of three pairs of adult P.t. jacksoni was observed at a local zoo using instantaneous scan sampling. The experimental protocol comprised three temporal blocks (pre-enrichment, enrichment and post-enrichment) lasting for five days each. A synthetically derived product (perfume) and a natural product (lime) were used as olfactory stimuli, and were applied on the walls of the enclosure following a fixed alternating routine. The frequency of behaviours and stereotypies observed for each tiger were scored following a defined ethogram. The diurnal activity budgets of the tigers were dominated by locomotion and stance (47%) and resting (33%). Pacing and patrolling were the major stereotypies exhibited by the tigers accounting for 8% of the diurnal activity budget. Investigative behaviour and scent marking significantly increased during the enrichment period. A reduction in locomotor activity was noted and the tigers spent more time resting in the presence of the olfactory stimuli. The frequency of stereotypic pacing and patrolling did not differ significantly between the pre-enrichment, enrichment and post-enrichment phases. However, the tigers did exhibit a trend of decreasing stereotypic behaviour pattern when the olfactory enrichment items were introduced. The highest contact frequency of the olfactory items was during the morning and evening. Olfactory stimuli have the potential to be used as a form of enrichment in captive tigers to increase their behavioural diversity and encourage investigative activities. Experimenting with varieties of olfactory stimuli may reveal preferences in captive tigers, and may prove effective in alleviating stress and reducing stereotypies in captive populations

Interaction between abomasal blood feeder Haemonchus contortus and intestinal mucosal browser Trichostrongylus colubriformis during co-infection in Boer goats

This study was conducted to investigate potential interactions between the abomasal blood feeder Haemonchus contortus and the intestinal mucosal browser Trichostrongylus colubriformis among deliberately infected Boer goats. Faecal and blood samples were collected twice a week for eight weeks from 25 parasite-naïve goats. Correlation analysis and multiple linear regression models were conducted to explore the association between phenotypic variables and variables taken at necropsy. Positive associations were identified between total FEC and log T. colubriformis number (r = 0.62, p < 0.05) as well as between IgA and peripheral eosinophil counts (r = 0.65, p < 0.05). A negative correlation was observed between T. colubriformis and log H. contortus number (r=-0.56, p < 0.05). Multiple linear regression models show that H. contortus and T. colubriformis interacted with each other. T. colubriformis appeared to contribute more significantly to the variation of FEC than H. contortus. Co-infection induced an IgA response which was only effective against T. colubriformis but not protective against H. contortus infection. This could be seen via significant associations of IgA with both nematode species but with the effect of IgA differing for H. contortus and T. colubriformis. In this study, H. contortus infection was not detrimental to the goats with no observed impact on PCV. This could be because the growth of T. colubriformis as represented by its length was associated with reduced number and composite burden of H. contortus during co-infection, or possibly due to low infection dosage. Improved understanding of the impact of H. contortus and T. colubriformis and their interaction from natural co-infection studies is beneficial for a better understanding of the goat-parasite interaction and its potential impacts on the health and productivity of animals

Health evaluation, parasite diversity and reproductive profiling in the critically endangered painted terrapin (Batagur borneoensis, Schlegel and Muller, 1844)

Painted terrapin (Batagur borneoensis) are critically endangered, hard-shelled freshwater chelonians that inhabit rivers and estuaries of Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, Thailand and Indonesia. The natural range of this terrapin species has reduced dramatically over the years due to pressures from environmental disturbances, habitat loss, and poaching. One of the ways to increase this species population is through captive breeding. However, there have been no successful ex situ captive breeding programmes of this species in South East Asia and this could be due to several factors like physical health, hormones, environment and nutrition. The causative factors could not be determined without conducting comparative health evaluation and reproductive profiling between captive and wild painted terrapins. Therefore the present study was conducted to evaluate the health and reproductive profile of wild B. borneoensis from Sungai Linggi, Melaka, and a captive population from a zoological facility in Melaka, Peninsular Malaysia. Blood was collected from 142 wild (50 adult male, 66 adult female, 7 sub-adult male, 11 sub-adult female, and 8 juveniles) and 12 adult (3 male and 9 female) captive painted terrapins for haematology and clinical biochemistry analyses, and monthly reproductive hormone (progesterone, oestrogen and testosterone) profiling through enzyme immunoassays (ELISA). All wild and captive painted terrapins were also subjected to morphometry, physical examination and health screening which included parasite detection and radiography. Changes in breeding colouration was monitored and scored for the males. Normal ranges for haematology and plasma biochemistry was established for the first time for wild B. borneoensis. Results indicated that the captive terrapins are in poorer health condition based on physical abnormalities, haematology, clinical biochemistry, and parasite burden compared to their wild conspecifics. This could be due to several factors such as stress of captivity, improper enclosure and poor nutrition. The most common lesions for the wild terrapins occurred on the carapace region (65.5%), while that of the captive individuals were found on the limbs (100.0%). The parasites that were encountered in this species include Falcaustra (9.4%), Orientodiscus (1.9%), Ozobranchus (30.7%), and haemogregarines (45.3%), which constitutes the first report for B. borneoensis. Helminth ova burden was more prevalent in the captive (66.7%) compared to the wild (50%) terrapins. Six wild females were found to be gravid, while only one male and one female captive terrapin showed indications of a normal breeding cycle. In the wild population, hormone profiles indicate that mating and spermiation occurs in October-November before ovulation in December-\ud January. The breeding coloration of the wild male terrapins corresponded well with the temporal cycle of reproductive hormones. In the captive population, mating and ovulation occurs in October-November before spermiation in December-January, which explains why the eggs produced by the captive females are not fertilised. The wild population provided a baseline on the natural reproductive cycle of this species and through this study, there was asynchrony of timing between spermiation in the captive males and ovulation in the females. The reason for this hormonal imbalance could be related to suboptimal health and husbandry in captivity. It is envisaged that the data obtained will assist in the protection and conservation of this terrapin species in the wild and also assist in the management of captive individuals meant for conservation breeding in zoological facilities

Endoscopy gender determination and reproductive hormone profiles of Painted Terrapins (<i>Batagur borneoensis</i>) subjected to <i>ex situ</i> incubation

Chelonian exhibit temperature dependent sex determination, and ex situ incubation of eggs in conservation hatcheries may render a gender bias. The gender of juvenile Painted terrapins (Batagur borneoensis) produced at a conservation hatchery in Malaysia was determined by endoscopy of the gonads. Circulating reproductive hormones (testosterone, progesterone and estradiol) were profiled for 31 juveniles and nine captive-reared non-breeding adult terrapins. Endoscopy revealed a gender bias of 96.8% (30/31) females. Testosterone levels in the juvenile females (2.49 ± 1.29) were significantly lower than that of the adult females (12.20 ± 4.29), and lower than values in the juvenile male (9.36) and adult males (27.60, 35.62). The progesterone levels in the juvenile females (107.12 ± 68.68) were significantly higher than that of the adult females (51.13 ± 24.67), but lower than values in the juvenile male (33.27) and adult males (3.43, 8.51). Estrogen levels were significantly lower in the juvenile females (1.57 ± 1.35) compared to the adult females (77.46 ± 53.45). Negative correlations were observed between levels of progesterone and testosterone, and progesterone and estrogen. A positive correlation was noted between estrogen and testosterone. The present study constitutes the first attempt to determine the gender and reproductive hormone profiles of juvenile Painted terrapins produced by ex situ incubation, and captive non-breeding adults. Endoscopy of the gonads is a useful techniques for gender determination among juvenile turtles, while the use of testosterone as a gender biomarker warrants further investigation