Evaluation of agri-environmental participatory extension programmes

Due to negative impacts on the environment, such as emission of greenhouse gases and pollution of surface and ground water, the agricultural sector has come under increasing scrutiny by wider society. A range of environmental policies and regulations have been developed to create a more environmentally sustainable farming culture, but successful implementation is complex due to the biophysical, economic and social heterogeneity of farms. Therefore, change towards more environmentally sustainable farming has been partially reliant on policies that stimulate voluntary change, such as participatory (research and) extension programmes (PEPs). In PEPs, farmers are participants in knowledge generation and practice change by introducing practices via experimentation on farm and subsequently demonstrating and scrutinising these in discussion groups with peers, experts and researchers. Given the public investment in PEPs, the increasing requirement for accountability by policy makers and funding bodies, and the uncertainty around the contribution to environmental targets, it is important that these programmes are reliably evaluated. This thesis addresses the topic of evaluation by: i) presenting a literature review of the current state of PEP evaluation; ii) conducting a mixed-method ex-post evaluation of an agri-environmental PEP in Scotland; iii) conducting an explanatory study on farmer decision-making regarding the uptake of environmental practices in New Zealand; and iv) studying the change within the culture of farming in New Zealand and Scotland due to environmental pressures and the role of PEPs in that change. The findings show that quantitative and qualitative methods are required to comprehensively assess the effect of PEPs beyond practice adoption, as well as longitudinal data collection to correctly quantify the effect of PEP participation. Furthermore, heterogeneity in decision-making factors is observed amongst farmers, which has to be taken into account when designing a PEP. Moreover, achieving sustained environmental change requires more than practice change, such as redefining the values and beliefs guiding farming culture. PEPs can be instrumental in achieving change beyond practice adoption, but additional policy tools, such as regulation and market-based instruments, are required to achieve successful change. The contribution of this thesis is four-fold: i) it presents one of the first evaluations of climate change PEPs in peer-reviewed literature; ii) it contributes to the development of a mixed methods approach for evaluation; iii) it provides insight into farmer decision-making around water quality issues in countries with low regulation; and iv) it considers PEP evaluation from a novel institutional logics perspective

The evaluation of a participatory extension programme focused on climate friendly farming

Agriculture is a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions and therefore effective policy interventions are required in order to mitigate these emissions. One form of intervention used within the agricultural sector is participatory extension programmes (PEPs). PEPs are advisory programmes based on voluntary participation where farmers, researchers, and rural experts collectively learn by sharing information and experiences. To evaluate the contribution of these programmes towards more climate friendly farming, this paper conducts an ex-post evaluation of a PEP focused on the voluntary uptake of on-farm emissions mitigation practices in the UK. We use a mixed-methods approach to understand both the adoption of new practices and a range of human-social outcomes such as social learning, resilience and improved decision-making. We find that participants in the PEP show a higher level of practice adoption compared to non-participants. However, the evaluation of the human-social indicators shows that the change cannot always be attributed to PEP participation. The paper contributes to the current literature by conducting the first evaluation on a climate change PEP in a developed country and by developing and applying an effective evaluation framework for climate change PEPs, in order to achieve an understanding of the change achieved by PEPs

Understanding the influence of indigenous values on change in the dairy industry

Communities, scientists, policy-makers and industries are requiring farmers to address environmental and wellbeing challenges in their on-farm management, transitioning away from a productivity dominated focus towards a multi-faceted system focus that includes environmental and social values. This paper analyses how Miraka Ltd., an Aotearoa-New Zealand indigenous owned and operated milk company, has taken on the role of institutional entrepreneur to enable and support change towards a multi-faceted system amongst its supply farmers. Observations and interviews were carried out to: (i) identify farmers’ changes in practices, beliefs and values over the last ten years; and (ii) identify how Miraka functions as an indigenous entrepreneur in the agricultural sector. Findings show that interviewees were initially guided by business and family-oriented values, beliefs and practices, but in response to the institutional entrepreneurship by Miraka, approximately half of the interviewees changed these values, beliefs and practices, by internalising people and environmental values. The main strategies employed by Miraka were mobilisation of material resources such as incentives and awards, creation of a rationale addressing environmental and social concerns in the dairy sector, and proactive connection with new actors. The research shows an indigenous owned small-medium enterprise can make changes in values, beliefs and practices amongst its supply farmers, but requires a stronger shared base of values to contribute to a wider economic change. The discussion connects these findings to wider literature on diverse economies and indigenous entrepreneurship to identify to what extent an indigenous small-medium enterprise can contribute to a system change

Policy approaches for enhanced dairy sector innovation – A review of future pathways and policies for effective implementation of digital agriculture

Innovation and technology are a feature of New Zealand’s dairy sector. To overcome current challenges, dairy farmers require agile and multi-dimensional innovation, supported by forward-looking and integrated policy from both the sector and government. In this paper, we outline some of the current dairy sector challenges, and potential technologies to address these challenges. We focus on the future for digital agriculture innovation and discuss policy approaches to enable the sector to leverage digitalisation. These approaches include co-innovation, responsible innovation, multi-scale approaches, micro-innovation and poly-innovation and mission-oriented innovation. Digital agriculture and policy may interact in two ways: (1) policy may be used to enhance digital agriculture innovation and, (2) digitalisation itself may act to enhance agricultural policy design and delivery. Overall, innovation policy requires greater directionality, use of policy bundles and a focus on technology as a mediator of new dairy farming practices and institutional configurations

Spatial evaluation of the impact of a climate change participatory extension programme on the uptake of soil management practices

Participatory extension programmes (PEPs) are a popular policy tool to stimulate the uptake of climate change mitigation practices on a farm level. Given the public investment in PEPs, reliable evaluation is important. However, few studies evaluate climate change PEPs. Moreover, the evaluations conducted so far do not correctly account for potential spatial effects, such as the influence of neighbouring farms on PEP participation. Therefore, this paper estimates the impact of PEP participation on the uptake of a climate change mitigation practice and soil management, and identifies the importance of spatial effects on PEP participation. A spatial propensity score matching method is applied to a dataset from Scotland, consisting of 134 PEP and 184 control farmers. The results show that PEP participation facilitates the uptake of soil management practices and that spatial dependence exists in farmers’ decision-making, indicating the need for the inclusion of spatial factors. This study contributes to the current literature by combining spatial econometric analysis and propensity score matching to conduct a quantitative evaluation of a climate change PEP. The evaluation methodology provides decision-makers with reliable insights into the potential contribution of PEPs towards climate change mitigation targets

Spatial evaluation of the impact of a climate change participatory extension programme on the uptake of soil management practices

Participatory extension programmes (PEPs) are a popular policy tool to stimulate the uptake of climate change mitigation practices on a farm level. Given the public investment in PEPs, reliable evaluation is important. However, few studies evaluate climate change PEPs. Moreover, the evaluations conducted so far do not correctly account for potential spatial effects, such as the influence of neighbouring farms on PEP participation. Therefore, this paper estimates the impact of PEP participation on the uptake of a climate change mitigation practice and soil management, and identifies the importance of spatial effects on PEP participation. A spatial propensity score matching method is applied to a dataset from Scotland, consisting of 134 PEP and 184 control farmers. The results show that PEP participation facilitates the uptake of soil management practices and that spatial dependence exists in farmers’ decision-making, indicating the need for the inclusion of spatial factors. This study contributes to the current literature by combining spatial econometric analysis and propensity score matching to conduct a quantitative evaluation of a climate change PEP. The evaluation methodology provides decision-makers with reliable insights into the potential contribution of PEPs towards climate change mitigation targets

Spatial evaluation of the impact of a climate change participatory extension programme on the uptake of soil management practices*

Participatory extension programmes (PEPs) are a popular policy tool to stimulate the uptake of climate change mitigation practices on a farm level. Given the public investment in PEPs, reliable evaluation is important. However, few studies evaluate climate change PEPs. Moreover, the evaluations conducted so far do not correctly account for potential spatial effects, such as the influence of neighbouring farms on PEP participation. Therefore, this paper estimates the impact of PEP participation on the uptake of a climate change mitigation practice and soil management, and identifies the importance of spatial effects on PEP participation. A spatial propensity score matching method is applied to a dataset from Scotland, consisting of 134 PEP and 184 control farmers. The results show that PEP participation facilitates the uptake of soil management practices and that spatial dependence exists in farmers’ decision-making, indicating the need for the inclusion of spatial factors. This study contributes to the current literature by combining spatial econometric analysis and propensity score matching to conduct a quantitative evaluation of a climate change PEP. The evaluation methodology provides decision-makers with reliable insights into the potential contribution of PEPs towards climate change mitigation targets

Reshaping a farming culture through participatory extension:An institutional logics perspective

Historically the dominant farming culture in Western developed countries, such as Scotland and New Zealand, has been based on maximising food production and maintaining the family business. However, this culture of production and family is under pressure from societal calls to increase the uptake of environmental practices in farm management. The pressure is leading farmers to adopt environmental practices, which causes a clash with the beliefs and values underlying the culture of production and family business. This clash is problematic, as it might form a barrier to sustained environmental change, for which not only practice change is required, but also a change in beliefs and values guiding the farming culture. This study explores the clash using an institutional perspective to: i) analyse how farmer practices, beliefs and values change due to external pressure to adopt environmental practices; ii) identify mechanisms via which this change unfolds; and iii) understand the role of participatory extension programmes in this change. An institutional perspective enables this study to move beyond the role of individual's attitudes and behaviours in adoption of environmental practices, towards considering how farmers' practices, beliefs and values together constitute the culture of farming, and how these are shaped by societal and institutional mechanisms. Twenty Scottish and 52 New Zealand farmers participated in qualitative, open-ended interviews and were observed during discussion groups or advisory meetings. Our findings show that all farmers are guided by a ‘business’, ‘lifestyle’ and/or ‘learning’ logic. The institutional clash influenced practices underlying the business logic to change from being purely based on maximising productivity, to including environmental aspects. However, no change in values was observed. Participatory extension programmes influenced practices, beliefs and values underlying the learning logic (changing from a ‘linear’ to ‘multi-actor’ logic) and thus can help facilitate more effective practice change by providing support via micro-mechanisms and enabling dynamics. The study contributes to current literature by introducing a new lens for understanding change induced by participatory extension programmes and by providing change agents, such as extensionists, with more in-depth knowledge about the main logics guiding the culture of farming, and the mechanisms by which farmer practices, beliefs and values may change. The in depth-knowledge will help to communicate, frame and organise extension initiatives

Understanding mechanisms that agricultural producers apply in response to evolving social pressures

Globally, the agricultural sector is linked to negative environmental outcomes, such as water quality and biodiversity deterioration. Consequently, agriculture faces increasing scrutiny by external stakeholders, such as the public and the media. The increasing environmental concerns and public scrutiny present challenges for agricultural producers to maintain stakeholder support, particularly in light-touch regulation countries such as New Zealand (NZ), where governmental intervention is low and stakeholders are able to influence the overall perception of farming. The theoretical concept of ‘organisational legitimacy’ has previously been used to study evolving social pressures, and refers to the informal approval or acceptance that stakeholders, such as the public, scientists, policy-makers, and local communities, grant to an individual business or sector. To identify how an agricultural sector copes with stakeholder acceptance, our study focuses on identifying strategies NZ dairy farmers adopt to retain stakeholder approval. Twenty-six dairy farmers were interviewed about changes they had made over the last five years, the motivation behind that change, and how stakeholder perceptions played a role in their businesses. Interviewees applied a combination of immediate responses to negative environmental contributions, and long-term responses to anticipate or avoid further challenging events. The study contributes to literature by introducing a theoretical lens novel to the study of stakeholder pressure on agricultural practices: organisational legitimacy. Furthermore, the study provides insights regarding the influence of stakeholder perspectives on farmer behaviour in a light-touch policy environment

Priming for individual energy efficiency action crowds out support for national climate change policy

The uptake of actions to mitigate climate change at the household level might crowd out subsequent policy at the national level, which is problematic because national policy often has a larger mitigation potential than individual household measures. This study analyses crowding out between the uptake of low-cost actions and the support for national climate change policy in the agricultural sector. In the experimental set-up, survey respondents were primed to think about the implementation of low-cost mitigation practices and subsequently asked to express support for national mitigation policy. The results show a crowding-out effect between individual mitigation measures and support for national policy. Individuals with high levels of worry show a stronger crowding out effect. This study contributes to building understanding of when and why crowding out occurs in order to help frame and communicate future climate change policy