Overcoming Environmental Injustices: An analysis of citizen assemblies’ fight against open-pit mining in Bariloche and Esquel

Worldwide, environmentalism and environmental concern is growing. Additionally, environmental issues like pollution and contamination are no longer considered simply environmental problems; environmental issues are now frequently analyzed from a sociological perspective. Beginning in the 1980s in the United States, the investigation of the relationship between environmental and social issues developed into the theory of environmental justice. This theory postulates that the unequal distribution of environmental harm occurs in correlation with (or is a direct result of) a lack of political recognition and participation. In this investigation, I utilize the theory of environmental justice to analyze the development of open-pit mining in Patagonia, and the subsequent responses to this development by local citizens in the communities of Bariloche and Esquel, Argentina. I analyze how and why citizen assemblies have been used to overcome the environmental injustice of open-pit mining. In particular, I question a) if these communities have a history that lacks political recognition and participation, b) how these assemblies use or avoid external support, and c) what the motivations and desires of these assemblies are. For ten days, I traveled to Bariloche to interview five neighbors of the Esquel and Bariloche assemblies. From these semi-structured interviews and other background research, it became clear that the development of open-pit mining in Patagonia is a case of environmental injustice. Furthermore, the goals, desires, actions, and organization of these assemblies are a direct result of (and response to overcome) the conditions of injustice that these community faced. The organization of the assembly, the search for autonomy, and the desire for structural change are the assemblies’ response to and means to overcome the environmental injustices associated with open-pit mining. In this paper, I will discuss: the history of mining in Argentina, the development of the assemblies of Esquel and Bariloche, the theoretical framework of environmental justice, how open-pit mining is an example of an environmental injustice, and how the organization, desires, and actions of these assemblies are a direct result of and response to overcome the conditions of environmental injustice they faced

Transcript for Episode 11: Destined to Lead: Tom Judge\u27s Path to Becoming Montana\u27s Youngest Governor

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Phosphorus Dynamics in Potato Plants

Phosphorus is present in plants in both the inorganic, as orthophosphate, and organic forms. The organic farms are compounds in which the orthophosphate is esterified with hydroxyl groups of sugars and alcohols, or bound by a pyrophosphate to another phosphate group (4). These organic forms are especially Important for energy storage and transfer processes. In P deficient plants, the Inorganic P concentration Is depressed much more than the organic P concentration. This reduction Is accompanied by reduced protein synthesis and reduced vegetative growth, particularly root growth. Phosphorus is relatively mobile in plants and, under conditions of P deficiency, Is translocated from the older plant tissues to the actively growing tissues or to plant parts that serve a storage function. Phosphorus deficiency symptoms are generally expressed in the older leaves as a darkish green color from an enhanced anthocyanin production. Plant nutrient analysis is used to determine the nutritional status of the plant, reflecting the nutrient availability in the soil. Important factors influencing the nutrient concentration and uptake are plant age, plant parts or tissues analyzed, and the availability of other nutrients. Petioles from the fourth leaf from the growing tip are generally used as Indicators of nutrient status In potato plants. Critical nutrient ranges for N, P, K, Zn, and Mn are available for use in the Pacific Northwest growing areas (2). Most of these data for potatoes were developed by relating nutrient concentrations during plant growth to final tuber yields. Recent studies show that N fertilizer efficiencies and crop yields are improved if the N fertilizer is applied according to crop growth rates (7, 8). In that study petiole NO?-N concentrations were used to monitor the plant's N nutritional status. This project is an attempt to apply some of the same concepts and principles to the P nutrition of this crop. The objectives of this report are to relate the petiole P concentrations to the P and dry matter distribution patterns during potato plant development and to relate these changes to final tuber yields

Nitrogen Requirements of Potatoes

Nitrogen fertilizer applications, for maximum fertilizer efficiencies and crop yields, should be based on the N required by the crop during its various growth stages. The objectives of this paper were to identify the N requirements of the potato plant (Solanum tuberosum L.) during growth and to evaluate selected soil and plant tissue tests as indicators of the plant's N status. Growth analysis data and soil and petiole NO3-N concentrations were obtained at predetermined time intervals from N fertilization treatments in replicated field studies on a coarse-silty mixed, mesic Durixerollic Calciorthrid soil. Maximum early tuber growth occurred when leaf area index was between 2.5 and 3.2 and the tops contained between 79 and 100 kg N ha-1 at the start of linear tuber growth. A preplant N fertilizer application between 67 and 134 kg ha-1 gave these characteristics under the experimental conditions. The maximum dry matter production rate per day (approx. 250 kg ha-1) occurred when there was between 80 and 140 kg N ha-1 in the plant tops and roots. An average tuber growth rate of 0.75 Mg ha-1 day-1 required a N uptake rate of 3.7 kg ha-1 day-1 to prevent the loss of N and dry matter from the tops and roots. Sufficient N was available for this rate when the soil NO3-N concentration was > 7.5 mg kg-1 (0.46-m soil depth), corresponding to 15 000 mg kg-1 NO3-N in the fourth petiole. Soil and petiole NO3-N concentrations may be used to adjust the N fertilization rates during the growing season. This practice has the potential of increasing the overall N fertilizer use efficiency and final tuber yields within the climatic, disease, and variety limitations

RuP2 Pool Size Indicated by CO2 Assimilation Following the Abrupt Loss of Light

Measurement of the changes in CO2 uptake by single leaves following the abrupt onset of darkness were made on sugarbeets (Beta vulgaris L.) and (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) The shape of the CO2 dark response curve was analyzed with respect to the reaction kinetics of CO2 RuP2 and RuP2 carboxylase. It was concluded that the net uptake of CO2 in the dark from a 1% O2 atmosphere can be approximately related to the pool size of the RuP2 substrate in the chloroplasts of C3 plants. This information was combined with CO2 levels and decay rates of the response curves to infer changes in carboxylase activity. Preliminary data are presented showing the relative concentration changes in RuP2 as light intensity decreases and as water stress increases. The method may prove useful in studies of plant response to environmental stresses

Phosphorus Relationships in Potato Plants

Maximum potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) tuber yields occur when an active plant canopy is maintained until normal plant maturation. Plaid nutrient concentrations and uptake rates play a major role in maintaining an active plant top. The objectives of this study were to relate the plant P concentrations to the P and dry matter balance between tuber and total plant growth needs. Growth analysis data, plant and leaf total P concentrations and content, and the petiole soluble P concentrations were obtained on a 10-to 14-day sampling interval from P fertilization treatments in replicated field studies. The P concentration of the plant tops was significantly related to the petiole soluble P concentration and the P concentration of the active leaves. Total plant P uptake and dry matter production rates were not adequate for the tuber growth rate when the total P concentrations of the tops and active leaves were less than 2.2 g P kg-1. Soluble P concentrations in the fourth petiole down from the growing tip were less than 1000 and 700 mg kg-1 when P uptake and dry matter production rates were not adequate for tuber growth, respectively. Final tuber yields increased from 30 to 70 Mg ha-1 as the number of growing days past tuber set increased from 10 to 60 days for which the P concentration of the tops was above 2.2 g P kg-1. The petiole soluble P concentration decreased during the growing season following a semi-logarithmic relationship. This relationship enabled the prediction of the petiole soluble P concentration for the rest of the growing season and could be used to predict when to apply supplemental P fertilizer

Dry Matter Production and Nitrogen Utilization by Six Potato Cultivars

The rate and duration of tuber growth largely determines the final potato (Solanum tuberosum L) tuber yields. Cultivars that continue leaf development and nutrient uptake while maintaining maximum tuber growth rates may have higher final tuber yields, yet different N requirements. The objective of this study was to obtain information relating plant growth rates to N availability for selected potato cultivars. Total dry matter accumulation, and N assimilation patterns of indeterminant cultivars, 'Russet Burbank', 'Lemhi Russet, 'Centennial Russet', and one advanced selection A66107-51, were compared-with that of two determinant cultivars 'Pioneer' and 'Norgold Russet', at three N levels. Cultivars were grown in a field experiment on a Portneuf silt-loam soil (Xerollic Calciorthids). High available soil N levels at planting delayed the linear potato tuber growth period 7 to 10 days but had minor effects on the time of tuber initiation for the indeterminant varieties. Maximum tuber growth rates (tuber bulking) were 900 to 1,300 kg/ha/day. A66107-51 was superior in N-use efficiency to the other cultivars. Between 70 and 100% of the total available N was utilized by this cultivar in producing high yields. This information may be used to select lines and cultivars that will optimize production. A knowledge of plant growth and N uptake rates can improve the fertilizer recommendations for each cultivar