Public Law Restrictions in the Context of 3D Land Administration—Review on Legal and Technical Approaches

Intense exploitation of land implies the development of multi-level, multi-purpose, overlapping and interlocking structures on 3D space, thus resulting in complex, stratified, 3D real property rights between individual owners, as well as restrictions. Legislation regulates the ownership status and use of land by imposing restrictions known as Public Law Restrictions (PLRs). PLRs extend to various fields and various legislative frameworks, such as the protection of archaeological sites, protection and maintenance of underground infrastructures and utilities, environmental protection, flying of unmanned air vehicles, etc. PLRs are usually investigated in the context of property rights and restrictions in the various Land Administration Systems worldwide, and do not often gain specific attention. However, it is noticed that the restrictions that arise from Public Law need to be investigated and classified, so that they can be better utilised in the property status of land ownership. This review paper investigates the legal statutes on PLRs within the context of 3D land administration and the stipulations used to provide unambiguous modelling of PLRs, as provided by the relative literature. Moreover, the PLRs applied in the 3D space, to clearly depict rights, restrictions and responsibilities on the relevant spatial unit (land, air, marine parcel, mine, utility network, etc.), are particularly examined. Therefore, this work is to critically review and assess the aforementioned approaches on PLRs’ registration, modelling and organisation, as provided by a literature survey, and provides an overall view of the requirements and challenges within the development of 3D Land Administration Systems also considering standardisation developments

Addressing Public Law Restrictions within a 3D Cadastral Context

Public law affects contemporary life by imposing various regulations that apply in 3D space. However, such restrictions are either literally described in legal documents or presented on a horizontal plane, resulting in ambiguities, especially in the case of vertically overlapping restrictions with a significant impact on land management. This paper investigates public law restrictions (PLR) applying to 3D space and their management within a 3D cadastral context. Within this framework, a case study is examined in Greece concerning the establishment of a subway station, focusing on public utilities, archaeological legislation, and building regulations. Relative legal documentation is compiled and mapped in a 3D PLR model, presenting inefficiencies and malfunctions that can be resolved if PLRs are addressed within a 3D cadastral context. Stipulations implying restrictions in 3D space within current legislation are presented, along with the restrictions deriving from the absolute character of ownership right, thus highlighting the significance of 3D definition, modeling and recording of PLRs

Νομικές προϋποθέσεις για την διαστρωμάτωση πολυεπίπεδων ιδιοκτησιακών δικαιωμάτων

This research focuses on the multiple stratification of real property, in the form of overlapping real property rights and Public Law Restrictions (PLRs), the legal instruments that are used to support vertical segmentation of land, their limitations and the legal amendments required for the operation of stratified land rights and volumetric real property units. Interrelation between the legal and the spatial component of real property units is made, in terms of the powers that are assigned to right-holders through real property rights and of the spatial boundaries within which such powers can be exercised. The former, are reflected within the concept of legal space, while the latter, to (legal space’s) corresponding physical space. Advance from “indivisible” ownership concepts, deriving from Roman principles on land ownership, to the “excision” of ownership of navigable air space or of underground space for mineral activities, as well as the assignment of legal powers to third parties through limited real property rights, depicts the need of legal instruments that circumvent the absolute character and the indivisible content of real property ownership. Further dissociation of surface parcel ownership from that of over (or under) lying structures, or of imposing volumetric Rights, Restrictions or Responsibilities (RRRs) is required by the increased spatial needs of modern societies and community living. Existing legal instruments, such as servitudes (easements), rights of superficies, emphyteusis, composite ownership concepts, or special real property rights, face limitations when applying to modern cases of real property stratification, thus highlighting the need of “enhancing” property law and cadastre legislation to support the vertical segmentation of real property and the assignment of volumetric real property rights. This thesis is structured in eight chapters, which respond to its research aim. First, the cases requiring real property stratification are identified, followed by studying of existing legal instruments used for real property stratification. Then, legal issues related to volumetric real property units are identified, analysed and compared, in order to evaluate existing concepts of real property stratification and propose legal amendments that address their limitations.Η παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή εστιάζει στα ζητήματα διαστρωμάτωσης της ιδιοκτησίας σε πολλαπλά επίπεδα, είτε με τη μορφή επικαλυπτόμενων, αυτοτελών ιδιοκτησιακών αντικειμένων, είτε με τη μορφή περιορισμών από διατάξεις του Δημοσίου Δικαίου, οι οποίοι επιβάλλονται στον τρισδιάστατο χώρο. Παράλληλα, εστιάζει στα νομικά εργαλεία τα οποία χρησιμοποιούνται για να επιτευχθεί ο διαχωρισμός της γης σε επιμέρους «όγκους» ιδιοκτησίας, στους περιορισμούς που προκύπτουν κατά την διαδικασία αυτή, καθώς και στις απαιτούμενες παρεμβάσεις στο νομικό πλαίσιο περί την έγγεια ιδιοκτησία, ώστε να υποστηριχθεί η θεσμοθέτηση και η λειτουργία «στρωματοποιημένων» ιδιοκτησιακών δικαιωμάτων και τρισδιάστατων ιδιοκτησιακών οντοτήτων. Στο πεδίο της ακίνητης περιουσίας, η ιδιοκτησία χαρακτηρίζεται από τη νομική και την χωρική της συνιστώσα. Η πρώτη αφορά στην εξουσίαση του ακινήτου, δηλαδή στις δυνατότητες που έχει ο δικαιούχος για χρήση, κάρπωση και διάθεση ενός ακινήτου. Η δεύτερη συνιστώσα αφορά στον προσδιορισμό και την οριοθέτηση του χώρου εντός του οποίου μπορούν να ασκηθούν οι δυνάμεις που απορρέουν από τη νομική συνιστώσα. Προκειμένου να εξασφαλιστεί το κοινωνικό συμφέρον και να εκφραστεί η κοινωνική λειτουργία της ιδιοκτησίας, επιβάλλονται στην έγγεια ιδιοκτησία περιορισμοί, τόσο ως προς τη χωρική διάσταση, όσο και ως προς το περιεχόμενο του τρόπου εξουσίασής της, δημιουργώντας έτσι «όγκους» ιδιοκτησίας. Αυτό, ερχεται σε αντίθεση με την παραδοσιακή αντίληψη του δικαιώματος της κυριότητας, όπως αυτή διατυπώνεται μέσω των αρχών του βυζαντινορωμαϊκού δικαίου, βάσει της οποίας η έγγεια ιδιοκτησία περιλαμβάνει το σύνολο της αέριας στήλης πάνω της, το έδαφος κάτω από αυτή, καθώς και το σύνολο των επικειμένων της. Η αντίληψη αυτή αποτελεί ατομικιστική προσέγγιση, και η αναγνώριση της κοινωνικής διάστασης της ιδιοκτησίας ξεκίνησε με την «περικοπή» από το έυρος της ιδιοκτησίας του χώρου που χρησιμοποιείται για μεταλλευτική δραστηριότητα, καθώς και για την διέλευση των εναερίων μέσων. Στο πλαίσιο της κοινωνικής λειτουργίας της ιδιοκτησίας, εισήχθησαν εμπράγματα δικαιώματα τα οποία περιορίζουν τον άμεσο και απόλυτο χαρακτήρα της κυριότητας (περιορισμένα εμπράγματα δικαιώματα), παραχωρώντας συγκεκριμένες εξουσίες προς τρίτους. Παρ’ όλα αυτά, τα χρησιμοποιούμενα νομικά εργαλεία, για παράδειγμα οι δουλείες, τς συστήματα διαιρεμένης ιδιοκτησίας, τα δικαιώματα επιφανείας και εμφύτευσης, και τα ειδικά ιδιοκτησιακά δικαιώματα, αντιμετωπίζουν περιορισμούς όταν καλούνται να χρησιμοποιηθούν σε περίπλοκες περιπτώσεις επικαλυπτόμενων ιδιοκτησιακών δικαιωμάτων σε σύνθετες υπόγειες ή υπέργειες κατασκευές, καθώς και στην επιβολή περιορισμών Δημοσίου Δικαίου (για παράδειγμα διατάξεις για την προστασία του περιβάλλοντος). Καταδεικνύεται λοιπόν η ανάγκη ενίσχυσης της νομοθεσίας που ρυθμίζει τόσο τα ζητήματα της έγγειας ιδιοκτησίας, όσο και της κτηματολογικής καταγραφής των δικαιωμάτων αυτών, ώστε να υποστηριχθεί ο διαχωρισμός της ιδιοκτησίας σε διακριτούς, τρισδιάστατους όγκους, αλλά και η επιβολή τρισδιάστατων ιδιοκτησιακών δικαιωμάτων. Το περιεχόμενο της διατριβής αυτής διαρθρώνεται σε οκτώ κεφάλαια. Αρχικά, εντοπίζονται οι περιπτώσεις για τις οποίες απαιτείται «στρωματοποίηση» των ιδιοκτησιακών δικαιωμάτων, καθώς και τα νομικά εργαλεία τα οποία αξιοποιούνται από τις διάφορες δικαιοδοσίες διεθνώς για τον σκοπό αυτό. Ακολουθεί αναγνώριση και ανάλυση των νομικών ζητημάτων που ανακύπτουν ως προς την δημιουργία τρισδιάστατων ιδιοκτησιακών οντοτήτων, και σύγκριση των διαφορετικών προσεγγίσεων που ακολουθούνται σε κάθε δικαιοδοσία, ώστε να αξιολογηθούν οι υπάρχουσες προσεγγίσεις και να εντοπιστούν πιθανές τροποποιήσεις στη νομοθεσία, οι οποίες να αντιμετωπίζουν τους περιορισμούς που ανακύπτουν

Public Law Restrictions in the Context of 3D Land Administration—Review on Legal and Technical Approaches

Intense exploitation of land implies the development of multi-level, multi-purpose, overlapping and interlocking structures on 3D space, thus resulting in complex, stratified, 3D real property rights between individual owners, as well as restrictions. Legislation regulates the ownership status and use of land by imposing restrictions known as Public Law Restrictions (PLRs). PLRs extend to various fields and various legislative frameworks, such as the protection of archaeological sites, protection and maintenance of underground infrastructures and utilities, environmental protection, flying of unmanned air vehicles, etc. PLRs are usually investigated in the context of property rights and restrictions in the various Land Administration Systems worldwide, and do not often gain specific attention. However, it is noticed that the restrictions that arise from Public Law need to be investigated and classified, so that they can be better utilised in the property status of land ownership. This review paper investigates the legal statutes on PLRs within the context of 3D land administration and the stipulations used to provide unambiguous modelling of PLRs, as provided by the relative literature. Moreover, the PLRs applied in the 3D space, to clearly depict rights, restrictions and responsibilities on the relevant spatial unit (land, air, marine parcel, mine, utility network, etc.), are particularly examined. Therefore, this work is to critically review and assess the aforementioned approaches on PLRs’ registration, modelling and organisation, as provided by a literature survey, and provides an overall view of the requirements and challenges within the development of 3D Land Administration Systems also considering standardisation developments

Determining the “true” three-dimensional environmental impact of Public Law Restrictions

The needs of modern, heavily urbanised societies, require, on the one hand, the most efficient exploitation of land by individual stakeholders and, on the other hand, have set up a variety of restrictions and regulations for the public benefit. Such restrictions are steadily growing in number and apply in various areas. Given the technological development in the construction sector, complex proprietary relations emerge in overlapping private and public rights. Cadastres constitute the core of land administration systems, gradually evolving to development tools that provide multi-purpose land related information. Within this context, incorporation of Public Law Restrictions (PLRs) to cadastral systems is considered a step towards the development of integrated cadastral systems. Internationally, PLRs are registered in separate registries, using different types and formats, depending on the competent body. They include, among others, restrictions regarding environment and nature protection, water protection, spatial and land use planning zones, cultural heritage, public infrastructure corridors and zones, public easements/servitudes and mining rights. Until today 3D registration and visualisation of such PLRs is mostly discussed at research level, mainly due to the variety of scientific fields related to each PLR, the need of quantifying qualitative components or “translating” physical attributes to legal restrictions and 3D volumes, as well as to the variety of responsible authorities and types of regulations. This paper focuses on identifying PLRs that pertain either explicit or implicit 3D characteristics, emphasising on the PLRs related to the development of the Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) project. To this purpose, the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) for the Greek section of the pipeline has been used as input, to identify the 3D PLRs that affect the pipeline’s installation, as well as their impact on the rights of affected parcels. Based on the constraints and legal requirements provided by the ESIA report, this paper considers broader PLRs’ legislation issues at a national and international level, concerning environmental protection that is: soil and groundwater, protected areas, landscape protection, restrictions on private land parcels crossed by the pipeline, or intersection with other underground infrastructures. This paper continues the authors’ research on issues linking 3D Cadastre to Public Law. The outcomes of this research can be used to identify and classify the complexities of transforming qualitative features into spatial dimensions, thus contributing to the 3D modelling of overlapping legal spaces related to various Public Law restrictions

Possibilities of Integrating Public Law Restrictions to 3D Cadastres

Modern urban environment is characterized by intense vertical exploitation of real property. This has resulted in complex and interlocking structures, also reflecting to vertically overlapping real property rights, intensifying the need for 3D cadastral systems. Additionally, a significant number of Public Law Restrictions (PLRs), defined by an extensive field of laws related to land, are imposed on real property, due to the need of legally implementing public benefit, thus restricting the range of individual owners’ rights. This implies both their physical extent in 3D space and power to act on real property deriving from each right. During the years, it is essential that these restrictions need to be implemented, not only on land surface, but also in 3D space, in order to comply with the vertical expansion of structures. PLRs have considerable influence on Land Administration, as they directly affect land use, urban planning and management, land values, land titles’ credibility and every other activity related to land exploitation. The significance of PLRs in Land Administration and management has been recognised by various countries internationally. A wide variety of PLRs is documented including, inter alia, environment and nature protection, water protection, spatial and land use planning zones, cultural heritage, public infrastructure corridors and zones, public easements/servitudes, mining rights and related restrictions. Each country records different PLRs in various registries, data types and formats, while in some countries, PLRs can be overlaid to cadastral parcel data. However, there has been no significant change to legal and cadastral framework in order to adjust to the 3D reality of PLRs. Therefore, vertically overlapping PLRs are presented in 2D while their vertical extent can only be identified by reference to their relative legal documentation. Given the extent of vertically overlapping real properties along with the wide range of PLR imposed on them, it is clear that legal and cadastral framework under different jurisdictions would be more efficient in Land Administration if provided for 3D definition and modelling of PLRs. This paper aims to identify and present Public Law regulations with their 3D features and investigate their potential integration to cadastral systems. To this aim, cases of above and/or below land surface PLRs are examined, exploiting cadastral survey data compiled within the Greek legal framework. The outcomes of this research can be used by interested parties to allow for clarification of complex, overlapping Public Law defined legal spaces, 3D visualisation and 3D modelling

Contribution of Existing Documentation in 3D Cadastre

Over the last decades, land exploitation is getting more intense in order to satisfy public and private needs of modern societies. The intensification of 3D space exploitation includes complicated rights, restrictions and responsibilities (RRRs) that need to be unambiguously registered. In this direction, the incorporation of 3D aspects of real property to cadastral systems may improve land administration systems, by reducing misinformation and clarifying complex property rights. To achieve this, current legislative and cadastral framework has to be adopted to the emerging needs, or 3D cadastral systems have to be introduced. During the course of time, each country has established a number of databases and registries for various purposes that maintain data describing 3D features of real property. Such data, although may not generate a full 3D cadastral system, can contribute, at some level, to 3D cadastral registration, clarifying complex real property situations. This paper investigates possibilities of extracting 3D property features from existing databases and registries, including availability, format and accuracy issues, taking into account national characteristics and international trends concerning harmonisation and interoperability issues. The investigation is implemented through two characteristic cases of complex property status in Greece that would greatly benefit from 3D representation, supported by existing documentation

Evaluation of photogrammetric methods of 3D data acquisition

147 σ.Στόχος της Διπλωματικής Εργασίας αυτής, είναι η αξιολόγηση τριών μεθόδων συλλογής τρισδιάστατης πληροφορίας, μέσω της σύγκρισης τριών τρισδιάσταστων μοντέλων του ίδιου αντικειμένου που έγιναν από αυτές.Η εφαρμογή πραγματοποιείται στο άγαλμα του Γίγαντα στο χώρο της Αρχαίας Αγοράς των Αθηνών, ενώ τις αξιολογούμενες μεθόδους αποτελούν η σάρωση με χρήση επίγειου σαρωτή laser, Leica Scanstation2, η μοντελοποίηση με χρήση εικόνων και συγκεκριμένα το εμπορικό λογισμικό PhotoModeler Scanner και η τρισδιάστατη μοντελοποίηση μέσω σύνθεσης χαρτών βάθους, με την ελεύθερη διαδικτυκή υπηρεσία ARC3D αι το πρόγραμμα MeshLab. Η συλλογή των δεδομένων περιλαμβάνει την τοποθέτηση ειδικών κωδικοποιημένων και ειδικών ανακλαστικών στόχων στην επιφάνεια του αγάλματος, τη λήψη επικαλυπτόμενων εικόνων περιμετρικά του, την εκτέλεση σαρώσεων και την πργματοποίηση τοπογραφικών μετρήσεων. Για την πραγματοποίηση των σαρώσεων, ο σαρωτής τοποθετήθηκε σε σκαλωσιά ύψους δύο μέτρων. Ακολουθεί επεξεργασία των δεδομένων με χρήση των προγραμμάτων Cyclone, MeshLab, Geomagic Studio και PhotoModeler Scanner από τα οποία προκύπτουν τα τελικά τρισδιάστατα μοντέλα του αγάλματος. Για κάθε μοντέλο, προσδιορίζεται η ακρίβειά του και για κάθε ζεύγος μοντέλων πραγματοποιούνται τεσσάρων ειδών έλεγχοι που περιλαμβάνουν τη σύγκριση των συντεταγμένων κοινών σημείων μεταξύ των τριών μοντέλων, την τρισδιάστατη σύγκριση συνταύτισής τουςμε δύο διαφορετικές μεθόδους και τον έλεγχο συνταύτισης δώδεκα οριζοντίων τομών που εξάγονται από το κάθε μοντέλο. Κατά τη διαδικασία σύγκρισης των τριών μοντέλων, τα παραγόμενα από τα δεδομένα του τρισδιάστατου σαρωτή και από το λογισμικό PhotoModeler Scanner παρουσιάζουν τις χαμηλότερες τιμές απόκλισης σε όλους τους τύπους ελέγχων που υποβάλλονται Οι μεγαλύτερες τιμές αποκλίσεων, παρατηρούνται στο μοντέλο που προκύπτει από τη σύνθεση των χαρτών βάθους. Μεταξύ των τριών μοντέλων, οι μέσες αποκλίσεις που παρατηρούνται, κυμαίνονται από 1.2 έως 3.1 εκατοστά, ενώ η μέγιστη τιμή του μέσου όρου απόκλισης των συντεταγμένων των στόχων φτάνει τα 2.7 εκατοστά.This diploma thesis aims to evaluate three methods for 3D dT acquisition, through the comparison of the 3D models that were created by each one. The implementation took place at the statue of a Giant in the Ancient Agora of Athens. The methods to be evaluated were (a) terrestrial laser scanning using the Leica Scanstation2 terrestrial laser scanner, (b) image-based modeling, especially using the PhotoModeler Scanner software by Eos Systems Inc. and (c) the free web based 3D reconstruction service ARC3D. During the fieldwork, two sets of coded and reflective targets were placed in or around the statue. Data acquisition included taking overlapping photographs around the statue, scanning and surveying measurements. To perform laser scanner acquisition, the scanner had to be placed on a 2 m high scaffolding. The final 3D models of the statue were constructed through suitable data processing using Cyclone, MeshLab, Geomagic Studio and PhotoModeler Scanner software. In each model, the coordinates of the coded targets were compared to those of the other ones, and deviation checks between models' surfaces were conduvted. deviation checks were performed between twelve cross sections of each model. The lowest deviation values were detected in the case of the Laser Scanner model, whereas maximum deviations were detected on the ARC3D model. 3D matching analysis reveals deviation ranging from 1.2 cm to 3.1 cm, while averaging deviation of the coordinate checks lies below 2.7 cm.Δημήτριος Ο. Κιτσάκη