Arrows represent the flow of fish within the supply chain, while stars represent possible intervention points these interventions can occur at the production level (1) e.g. restrictions on fishing activity; distribution level (3) e.g. tracking trading between distributors; consumption level (5) e.g. influencing consumer demand for sustainably caught fish, or at linkages between steps.

<p>These linkages include transport to market (2) e.g. improving communication or tracking of fish flows, and the final transport to consumers (4) e.g. mandating reporting for off island shipments.</p

Follow that fish: Uncovering the hidden blue economy in coral reef fisheries

<div><p>Despite their importance for human well-being, nearshore fisheries are often data poor, undervalued, and underappreciated in policy and development programs. We assess the value chain for nearshore Hawaiian coral reef fisheries, mapping post-catch distribution and disposition, and quantifying associated monetary, food security, and cultural values. We estimate that the total annual value of the nearshore fishery in Hawaiʻi is $10.3-$16.4 million, composed of non-commercial ($7.2-$12.9 million) and commercial ($2.97 million licensed +$148,500-$445,500 unlicensed) catch. Hawaii’s nearshore fisheries provide >7 million meals annually, with most (>5 million) from the non-commercial sector. Over a third (36%) of meals were planktivores, 26% piscivores, 21% primary consumers, and 18% secondary consumers. Only 62% of licensed commercial catch is accounted for in purchase reports, leaving 38% of landings unreported in sales. Value chains are complex, with major buyers for the commercial fishery including grocery stores (66%), retailers (19%), wholesalers (14%), and restaurants (<1%), who also trade and sell amongst themselves. The bulk of total nearshore catch (72–74%) follows a short value chain, with non-commercial fishers keeping catch for household consumption or community sharing. A small amount (~37,000kg) of reef fish—the equivalent of 1.8% of local catch—is imported annually into Hawaiʻi, 23,000kg of which arrives as passenger luggage on commercial flights from Micronesia. Evidence of exports to the US mainland exists, but is unquantifiable given existing data. Hawaiian nearshore fisheries support fundamental cultural values including subsistence, activity, traditional knowledge, and social cohesion. These small-scale coral reef fisheries provide large-scale benefits to the economy, food security, and cultural practices of Hawaiʻi, underscoring the need for sustainable management. This research highlights the value of information on the value chain for small-scale production systems, making the hidden economy of these fisheries visible and illuminating a range of conservation interventions applicable to Hawaiʻi and beyond.</p></div

Value chain of nearshore fish in Hawaiʻi.

<p>Dark blue arrows represent quantified flows while light blue arrows indicate flows of unknown quantity. Known flows are considered to be underestimates and are nested within larger light blue unknown flows. Production comes from non-commercial and commercial fisheries, with some imports. The non-commercial local fishery largely supplies non-commercial consumption and sharing. Commercial catch derives from both licensed and non-licensed fishers. Only licensed fishers are required to report catch to state officials. Most (at least 62%) of the licensed catch stays in the formal market, and was sold to dealers, who voluntarily report their purchases entering commercial markets directly from fishers. Dealers also trade an undisclosed amount between each other. An unknown amount of nearshore fish is exported from Hawaiʻi. Both the commercial and non-commercial sectors add value to the economy.</p

Description of fish dealer categories according to Hawai‘i DAR.

<p>Description of fish dealer categories according to Hawai‘i DAR.</p

Cultural values, definitions, and evidence in Hawaii.

<p>Cultural values, definitions, and evidence in Hawaii.</p

Trophic group breakdowns for commercial and non-commercial catch, by value-added at the fisher level, and additional value-added by commercial fish dealers.

<p>Dark gray box demarcates the non-commercial catch and value-added; light gray the commercial catch (value-added derived from fishers and dealers).</p

Mean Village Level Octopus Income Before and After Temporary Closures.

<p>Mean Village Level Octopus Income Before and After Temporary Closures.</p

Closure effects on Village Fishery Income.

<p>Total village-level octopus fishing income ($PPP) 30 days before, during, and after closures, at villages both with and without closures. The data depicted are from 28 closure periods showing closure-implementing villages and their control villages from 2004–2011. Data are separated by season, thus separating closures that occurred independently of a regional fishery shutdown (“no ban”), and those that extended the shutdown (“ban”). As “during” periods are not exactly 30 days, “during” values are scaled to a per-30-day measure. Significance indicators show distinctions between a particular group and its “before” group comparison, from linear mixed-effect model. NS = Not Significant; * = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01; *** = p < 0.001. For effort, value per unit effort, and data aggregated across seasons, please see <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0129075#pone.0129075.s005" target="_blank">S5</a> & <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0129075#pone.0129075.s006" target="_blank">S6</a> Figs.</p

Maps of Study Area.

<p>(A) Large-scale map of Madagascar and the African continent, (B) Inset of the 25 villages of the Velondriake Locally Managed Marine Area in southwestern Madagascar. Vertical box extent is ~75 km. (C) Representative example of a periodic octopus fishery closure. Indicated in the map are two villages, Andavadoaka and Ampasilava, with their respective octopus fishing sites mapped in orange and yellow. In green, you can see the sites Amagnahitse and Nosinkara, in which these two villages have repeatedly co-implemented a periodic octopus fishery closure.</p

Closure Site Net Economic Benefits.

<p>Closure Site Net Economic Benefits.</p