A New Chronology for the Bronze Age of Northeastern Thailand and Its Implications for Southeast Asian Prehistory

<div><p>There are two models for the origins and timing of the Bronze Age in Southeast Asia. The first centres on the sites of Ban Chiang and Non Nok Tha in Northeast Thailand. It places the first evidence for bronze technology in about 2000 B.C., and identifies the origin by means of direct contact with specialists of the Seima Turbino metallurgical tradition of Central Eurasia. The second is based on the site of Ban Non Wat, 280 km southwest of Ban Chiang, where extensive radiocarbon dating places the transition into the Bronze Age in the 11th century B.C. with likely origins in a southward expansion of technological expertise rooted in the early states of the Yellow and Yangtze valleys, China. We have redated Ban Chiang and Non Nok Tha, as well as the sites of Ban Na Di and Ban Lum Khao, and here present 105 radiocarbon determinations that strongly support the latter model. The statistical analysis of the results using a Bayesian approach allows us to examine the data at a regional level, elucidate the timing of arrival of copper base technology in Southeast Asia and consider its social impact.</p></div

Bayesian age model for the site of Ban Na Di.

<p>(OxCal. v4.2.4 Bronk Ramsey (2009 [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0137542#pone.0137542.ref038" target="_blank">38</a>]); r:5 IntCal13 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al. 2013 [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0137542#pone.0137542.ref039" target="_blank">39</a>]).</p

The layout of the burials from the 1975 excavation at Ban Chiang, together with the new calibrated AMS radiocarbon determinations, at 95.4% probability.

<p>The date for burial 74 (1415–1230 BC) is omitted because it is assigned to the late Neolithic EP II.</p

Topographic map with the location of the Thai sites mentioned in the text.

<p>1. Non Nok Tha, 2. Ban Non Wat, 3. Ban Lum Khao, 4. Ban Chiang, 5. Ban Na Di, 6. Khao Wong Prachan, 7. Xepon. Dashed line indicates copper exchange networks between sites and mines. Scale 200 km.</p

Bayesian age model for the site of Ban Chiang.

<p>(OxCal. v4.2.4 Bronk Ramsey (2009 [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0137542#pone.0137542.ref038" target="_blank">38</a>]); r:5 IntCal13 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al. 2013 [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0137542#pone.0137542.ref039" target="_blank">39</a>]).</p

Bayesian probability functions (PDFs) for the beginning of the Bronze Age in Thailand.

<p>Using the individual site data for the five dated sites (Ban Chiang, Ban Na Di, Ban Lum Khao, Non Nok Tha, Ban Non Wat) we calculated the probability distribution for the start of the Bronze Age in the region (1200–1000 BC at 68.2%, shaded grey, or 1570–900 BC at 95.4%). Figure was generated using OxCal v4.2.4. and IntCal13.</p

The offsets between previous and current radiocarbon determinations for the same Ban Chiang burials on the basis of clay temper (in red) and human bone (in green).

<p>The offsets between previous and current radiocarbon determinations for the same Ban Chiang burials on the basis of clay temper (in red) and human bone (in green).</p

Bayesian age model for the site of Non Nok Tha.

<p>(OxCal. v4.2.4 Bronk Ramsey (2009 [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0137542#pone.0137542.ref038" target="_blank">38</a>]); r:5 IntCal13 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al. 2013 [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0137542#pone.0137542.ref039" target="_blank">39</a>]).</p

Supplemental tables from Large-scale application of palaeoproteomics (zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry) in two Palaeolithic faunal assemblages from China

Table S1 to S

Chronology of Ksar Akil (Lebanon) and Implications for the Colonization of Europe by Anatomically Modern Humans

<div><p>The Out-of-Africa model holds that anatomically modern humans (AMH) evolved and dispersed from Africa into Asia, and later Europe. Palaeoanthropological evidence from the Near East assumes great importance, but AMH remains from the region are extremely scarce. ‘Egbert’, a now-lost AMH fossil from the key site of Ksar Akil (Lebanon) and ‘Ethelruda’, a recently re-discovered fragmentary maxilla from the same site, are two rare examples where human fossils are directly linked with early Upper Palaeolithic archaeological assemblages. Here we radiocarbon date the contexts from which Egbert and Ethelruda were recovered, as well as the levels above and below the findspots. In the absence of well-preserved organic materials, we primarily used marine shell beads, often regarded as indicative of behavioural modernity. Bayesian modelling allows for the construction of a chronostratigraphic framework for Ksar Akil, which supports several conclusions. The model-generated age estimates place Egbert between 40.8–39.2 ka cal BP (68.2% prob.) and Ethelruda between 42.4–41.7 ka cal BP (68.2% prob.). This indicates that Egbert is of an age comparable to that of the oldest directly-dated European AMH (Peştera cu Oase). Ethelruda is older, but on current estimates not older than the modern human teeth from Cavallo in Italy. The dating of the so-called “transitional” or Initial Upper Palaeolithic layers of the site may indicate that the passage from the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic at Ksar Akil, and possibly in the wider northern Levant, occurred later than previously estimated, casting some doubts on the assumed singular role of the region as a locus for human dispersals into Europe. Finally, tentative interpretations of the fossil's taxonomy, combined with the chronometric dating of Ethelruda's context, provides evidence that the transitional/IUP industries of Europe and the Levant, or at least some of them, may be the result of early modern human migration(s).</p></div