The physics of earthquakes

Earthquakes occur as a result of global plate motion. However, this simple picture is far from complete. Some plate boundaries glide past each other smoothly, while others are punctuated by catastrophic failures. Some earthquakes stop after only a few hundred metres while others continue rupturing for a thousand kilometres. Earthquakes are sometimes triggered by other large earthquakes thousands of kilometres away. We address these questions by dissecting the observable phenomena and separating out the quantifiable features for comparison across events. We begin with a discussion of stress in the crust followed by an overview of earthquake phenomenology, focusing on the parameters that are readily measured by current seismic techniques. We briefly discuss how these parameters are related to the amplitude and frequencies of the elastic waves measured by seismometers as well as direct geodetic measurements of the Earth's deformation. We then review the major processes thought to be active during the rupture and discuss their relation to the observable parameters. We then take a longer range view by discussing how earthquakes interact as a complex system. Finally, we combine subjects to approach the key issue of earthquake initiation. This concluding discussion will require using the processes introduced in the study of rupture as well as some novel mechanisms. As our observational database improves, our computational ability accelerates and our laboratories become more refined, the next few decades promise to bring more insights on earthquakes and perhaps some answers

Continuous Charge Modulated Diagonal Phase in Manganites

We present a novel ground state that explain the continuous modulated charge diagonal order recently observed in manganese oxides, at hole densities $x$ larger than one half. In this diagonal phase the charge is modulated with a predominant Fourier component inversely proportional to $1-x$. Magnetically this state consist of antiferromagnetic coupled zig-zag chains. For a wide range of relevant physical parameters as electron-phonon coupling, antiferromagnetic interaction between Mn ions and on-site Coulomb repulsion, the diagonal phase is the ground state of the system. The diagonal phase is favored by the modulation of the hopping amplitude along the zig-zag chains, and it is stabilized with respect to the one dimensional straight chain by the electron phonon coupling. For realistic estimation of the physical parameters, the diagonal modulation of the electron density is only a small fraction of the average charge, a modulation much smaller than the obtained by distributing Mn$^{+3}$ and Mn$^{+4}$ ions. We discuss also the spin and orbital structure properties of this new diagonal phase.Comment: 4 pages, 4 figures include

Real-time testing of the on-site warning algorithm in southern California and its performance during the July 29 2008 M_w5.4 Chino Hills earthquake

The real-time performance of the τ_c -P_d on-site early warning algorithm currently is being tested within the California Integrated Seismic Network (CISN). Since January 2007, the algorithm has detected 58 local earthquakes in southern California and Baja with moment magnitudes of 3.0 ≤ M_w ≤ 5.4. Combined with newly derived station corrections the algorithm allowed for rapid determination of moment magnitudes and Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) with uncertainties of ±0.5 and ±0.7 units, respectively. The majority of reporting delays ranged from 9 to 16 s. The largest event, the July 29 2008 M_w5.4 Chino Hills earthquake, triggered a total of 60 CISN stations in epicentral distances of up to 250 km. Magnitude predictions at these stations ranged from M_w4.4 to M_w6.5 with a median of M_w5.6. The closest station would have provided up to 6 s warning at Los Angeles City Hall, located 50 km to the west-northwest of Chino Hills

The physics of earthquakes

Seismologists have never directly observed rupture in Earth’s interior. Instead, they glean information from seismic waves, geodetic measurements, and numerical experiments

The October 1980 earthquake sequence near the New Hebrides

Four large earthquakes occurred in 1980 in a seismic gap near the Loyalty Islands in the New Hebrides. At 3:25 UT on October 24 an event with M_s = 6.7 initiated the sequence. Three events, M_s = 6.7, 7.2, and 6.5, followed on the next day. We investigated this sequence by using the seismicity, first-motion, and waveform data and long-period surface waves. The first-motion data constrain one of each pair of nodal planes. With this constraint, inversion of Rayleigh- and Love-wave spectra at 256 seconds determines the other nodal plane. The mechanisms of all four events are almost pure thrust on a plane dipping about 20 degrees east and striking parallel to the local strike of the New Hebrides trench. The first-day aftershocks indicate an initial rupture zone of about 2,000 km², which is consistent with the estimated seismic moment of 3 × 10^(27) dyne-cm. During the next two days, the aftershock activity expanded to an area of 10,000 to 20,000 km² in the directions both along and perpendicular to the trench. Within 5 hours after the third and largest event, the initial rupture zone had become mostly quiescent. Modeling of waveforms suggests a body-wave moment of between 0.5 and 1.0 × 10^(27) dyne-cm and a source process time of 11 seconds. This pattern suggests that the initial rupture zone represents a zone of increased strength (i.e. an asperity), and the stress change due to failure of this asperity subsequently migrated outward. During the two-year period before the main event, seismicity in the initial rupture zone was very low except near the point where the first mainshock initiated. A very tight clustering of activity occurred there. This pattern indicates gradual stress concentration near the asperity which finally failed during the mainshock sequence

Reviving mB

We determine m_B, the original body wave magnitude developed by Gutenberg and Richter over the period 1942–1956, for about 3300 M_w ≥ 6 earthquakes for the period 1988–present using modern broad-band seismograms. The main objective is to extend the database of energy-related parameters by combining m_B databases for recent and old events. The radiated energy ER_B (in erg) computed from m_B using the Gutenberg & Richter relation loge_(R_B) = 2.4m_B + 5.8 agrees very well with E_R estimated with modern techniques, especially for large deep earthquakes. Thus, E_(R_B) is useful as a proxy for E_R to investigate the global diversity of earthquake characteristics and physics over an extended period of time

Source properties of earthquakes near the Salton Sea triggered by the 16 October 1999 M 7.1 Hector Mine, California, earthquake

We analyze the source properties of a sequence of triggered earthquakes that occurred near the Salton Sea in southern California in the immediate aftermath of the M 7.1 Hector Mine earthquake of 16 October 1999. The sequence produced a number of early events that were not initially located by the regional network, including two moderate earthquakes: the first within 30 sec of the P-wave arrival and a second approximately 10 minutes after the mainshock. We use available amplitude and waveform data from these events to estimate magnitudes to be approximately 4.7 and 4.4, respectively, and to obtain crude estimates of their locations. The sequence of small events following the initial M 4.7 earthquake is clustered and suggestive of a local aftershock sequence. Using both broadband TriNet data and analog data from the Southern California Seismic Network (SCSN), we also investigate the spectral characteristics of the M 4.4 event and other triggered earthquakes using empirical Green's function (EGF) analysis. We find that the source spectra of the events are consistent with expectations for tectonic (brittle shear failure) earthquakes, and infer stress drop values of 0.1 to 6 MPa for six M 2.1 to M 4.4 events. The estimated stress drop values are within the range observed for tectonic earthquakes elsewhere. They are relatively low compared to typically observed stress drop values, which is consistent with expectations for faulting in an extensional, high heat flow regime. The results therefore suggest that, at least in this case, triggered earthquakes are associated with a brittle shear failure mechanism. This further suggests that triggered earthquakes may tend to occur in geothermal–volcanic regions because shear failure occurs at, and can be triggered by, relatively low stresses in extensional regimes

Anomalously large complete stress drop during the 2016 M_w 5.2 Borrego Springs earthquake inferred by waveform modeling and near-source aftershock deficit

The 2016 M_w 5.2 Borrego Springs earthquake occurred in the trifurcation area of the San Jacinto Fault Zone and generated more than 23,000 aftershocks. We analyze source properties of this earthquake along with 12,487 precisely located aftershock hypocenters to obtain an unusually detailed view of the rupture process and energy budget for this moderate earthquake. Source time functions are obtained using an empirical Green's function approach and are inverted for a slip distribution on the fault plane. The rupture propagated unilaterally to the northwest over a distance of 1.8 km, resulting in clear directivity signals. Two asperities are identified and the maximum slip is 2.54 m, resulting in a static stress drop of 78.2 MPa. Over 97% of the aftershocks occur more than 1 rupture length from the slip area. We conclude that the Borrego Springs earthquake had a complete stress drop and estimate the seismic efficiency to be 15–26%

Conveying misinformation: Top-ranked Japanese books on tobacco

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Tobacco control efforts in Japan have lagged other high income countries, possibly because the Japanese government partially owns Japan Tobacco, Inc. In Japan, tobacco use is still often regarded as an issue of manners rather than an issue of health. Information about tobacco is available, but may not always be accurate. We explored what information Japanese consumers might access by reading popular Japanese books about tobacco.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>We searched Amazon.com Japan using the term "Tobacco", identifying the top 12 books by "relevance" and "bestselling." We eliminated duplicates and books not concerned with tobacco use and classified the remaining books as pro-smoking, anti-smoking, or neutral. We reviewed the pro-smoking books, published 2004-2009, and analyzed examples of misinformation by theme.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Pro-smoking popular books conveyed five types of misinformation: doubt about science; suggestions that smoking increased health, longevity, virility, etc.; trivializing tobacco's effects; attacking public health advocates/authorities; and linking tobacco use with authenticity, history, or civil rights. At least one book was authored by a former Japan Tobacco employee; another used a popular Japan Tobacco advertising phrase.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Creating doubt and confusion about tobacco serves tobacco industry interests and re-creates a strategy developed by US tobacco interests more than 40 years ago. Japanese readers may be misled by texts such as those reviewed. Tobacco control and public health advocates in Japan and globally should expose and counter such misinformation. "Naming and shaming" may be effective.</p