Advancing Applied Research in Conservation Criminology Through the Evaluation of Corruption Prevention, Enhancing Compliance, and Reducing Recidivism

Concomitant with an increase in the global illegal wildlife trade has been a substantial increase in research within traditional conservation-based sciences and conservation and green criminology. While the integration of criminological theories and methods into the wildlife conservation context has advanced our understanding of and practical responses to illegal wildlife trade, there remain discrepancies between the number of empirical vs. conceptual studies and a disproportionate focus on a few select theories, geographical contexts, and taxonomic groups. We present three understudied or novel applications of criminology and criminal justice research within the fields of fisheries, forestry, and wildlife conservation. First, we highlight criminological research on the application of corruption prevention in combating the illegal wildlife trade. Corruption has increasingly been getting attention from the non-governmental sector; however, there has been limited research aimed at understanding institutional opportunity structures, local conceptualizations of corruption, and the corresponding prevention strategies within conservation contexts. Second, we discuss the pre-emptive application of compliance theories when designing and monitoring Community-Based Conservation (CBC) programs such as community forestry, non-timber forest products, and community patrol programs. Applying opportunity theory and social development strategies are two suggestions to improve the effectiveness of CBCs in forestry and beyond. Finally, we present a discussion on recidivism (i.e., repeat offending) and non-instrumental or novel responses, utilizing illegal fishing as a case study. We present two alternative methods to traditional forms of punishment: restorative justice and community-based approaches. Lastly, we will present a diversity of priority research agendas within each of these topics

Gendered Risk Perceptions Associated with Human-Wildlife Conflict: Implications for Participatory Conservation

This research aims to foster discourse about the extent to which gender is important to consider within the context of participatory approaches for biological conservation. Our objectives are to: (1) gender-disaggregate data about stakeholders' risk perceptions associated with human-wildlife conflict (HWC) in a participatory conservation context, and (2) highlight insights from characterizing gendered similarities and differences in the way people think about HWC-related risks. Two communal conservancies in Caprivi, Namibia served as case study sites. We analyzed data from focus groups (n = 2) to create gendered concept maps about risks to wildlife and livelihoods and any associations of those risks with HWC, and semi-structured interviews (n = 76; men = 38, women = 38) to measure explicit risk attitudes associated with HWC. Concept maps indicated some divergent perceptions in how groups characterized risks to wildlife and livelihoods; however, not only were identified risks to wildlife (e.g., pollution, hunting) dissimilar in some instances, descriptions of risks varied as well. Study groups reported similar risk perceptions associated with HWC with the exception of worry associated with HWC effects on local livelihoods. Gendered differences in risk perceptions may signal different priorities or incentives to participate in efforts to resolve HWC-related risks. Thus, although shared goals and interests may seem to be an obvious reason for cooperative wildlife management, it is not always obvious that management goals are shared. Opportunity exists to move beyond thinking about gender as an explanatory variable for understanding how different groups think about participating in conservation activities

Gene expression imputation across multiple brain regions provides insights into schizophrenia risk

Transcriptomic imputation approaches combine eQTL reference panels with large-scale genotype data in order to test associations between disease and gene expression. These genic associations could elucidate signals in complex genome-wide association study (GWAS) loci and may disentangle the role of different tissues in disease development. We used the largest eQTL reference panel for the dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) to create a set of gene expression predictors and demonstrate their utility. We applied DLPFC and 12 GTEx-brain predictors to 40,299 schizophrenia cases and 65,264 matched controls for a large transcriptomic imputation study of schizophrenia. We identified 413 genic associations across 13 brain regions. Stepwise conditioning identified 67 non-MHC genes, of which 14 did not fall within previous GWAS loci. We identified 36 significantly enriched pathways, including hexosaminidase-A deficiency, and multiple porphyric disorder pathways. We investigated developmental expression patterns among the 67 non-MHC genes and identified specific groups of pre- and postnatal expression

Environmental and socio-demographic characteristics of study site and interview participants (<i>n</i> = 76) in East Caprivi, Namibia [64].

<p>Environmental and socio-demographic characteristics of study site and interview participants (<i>n</i> = 76) in East Caprivi, Namibia <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0032901#pone.0032901-Namibian1" target="_blank">[64]</a>.</p

Effect of gender (men = 38; women = 38) on attitudes toward human wildlife conflict related risks in East Caprivi, Namibia.

*<p>Significant at p<0.05.</p>a<p>Response options included yes or no.</p>b<p>Response options included high or low.</p

Percentage of respondents rating categories of human-wildlife conflict as highly dreadful to livelihoods and wildlife.

<p>Interview respondents (n = 76; men = 38; women = 38) rated various categories of human-wildlife conflict as being a “no,” “low,” “medium,” or “high” level of dreadfulness to them personally. Response categories were recoded into dichotomous responses of “low” and “high” (highly) dreadfulness. <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0032901#pone-0032901-g003" target="_blank">Fig. 3A</a> illustrates responses when the human-wildlife conflict (HWC) risk target (i.e., the recipient of negative consequences of the risk) was local livelihoods. <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0032901#pone-0032901-g003" target="_blank">Fig. 3B</a> illustrates responses when the HWC risk target was local wildlife. There was a high level of agreement among men and women when the risk target was local livelihoods, with the exception of “human-human conflict” that results from HWC, and less agreement among men and women when the risk target was local wildlife.</p

Concept maps illustrating participants' perceptions of risk to wildlife.

<p>Focus group participants (n = 32; men = 15; women = 17) generated a list of risks to local wildlife and described them. Responses are displayed in a gender-segregated concept map presenting “overarching risk themes,” “theme attributes.” and “attribute descriptions.” <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0032901#pone-0032901-g002" target="_blank">Fig. 2A</a> displays responses anchored in the “people dimension,” <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0032901#pone-0032901-g002" target="_blank">Fig. 2B</a> displays responses anchored in the “wildlife dimension,” and <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0032901#pone-0032901-g002" target="_blank">Fig. 2C</a> displays responses anchored in the “habitat dimension.” Boldfaced type illustrates concepts common across men and women. Italicized type illustrates concepts participants related to human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Men and women identified diverse “overarching risk themes,” theme attributes” and “theme descriptions.” For example, although men and women identified pollution, including noise, as a threat to wildlife, the attribute noise was “described” differently. Men and women identified “overarching risk themes” of human activities such as hunting; only men distinguished legal from illegal hunting and noted how lack of work created risks.</p

Concept maps illustrating participants' perceptions of risk to livelihoods.

<p>Focus group participants (n = 33; men = 16; women = 17) generated a list of risks to their livelihoods and described them. Responses are displayed in a gender-segregated concept map presenting the “overarching risk themes,” “theme attributes,” and “attribute descriptions.” <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0032901#pone-0032901-g001" target="_blank">Fig. 1A</a> displays responses anchored in the “people dimension,” <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0032901#pone-0032901-g001" target="_blank">Fig. 1B</a> displays responses anchored in the “wildlife dimension,” and <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0032901#pone-0032901-g001" target="_blank">Fig. 1C</a> displays responses anchored in the “habitat dimension.” Boldfaced type illustrates concepts common across men and women. Italicized type illustrates concepts participants related to human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Men and women viewed some risks to local livelihoods differently. For example, within the “people” dimension, women offered breadth of detail about “overarching risk themes” and “theme attributes” and men offered depth of detail when describing “overarching risk themes” and “theme attributes.” Even when men and women similarly identified the “overarching risk themes” of flooding, deforestation, and agriculture within the “habitat” dimension, the “theme attributes” and “attribute descriptions” were different.</p