Enlightening Science: Addressing the Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Aspects of Science Learning

Physical science (or physics) is known to be one of the least popular school curriculum domains, mainly because of its complexity. When students encounter seemingly insurmountable difficulties when learning something, they lose the motivation to continue. It has been suggested that both the cognitive (e.g., students’ conceptual understanding and achievement) and non-cognitive (e.g., psychological aspects such as academic self-concept and motivation) factors of learning are essential for helping students achieve their optimal best in a curriculum domain. However, there has not been much research, if any, which uses a dual approach to investigate both aspects of science learning. Most research focused on either the cognitive or non-cognitive aspect. Research on cognitive aspects of learning suggests that element interactivity is a useful construct with which to examine students’ cognitive processes and the complexity of learning materials. However, there has been no illustration on how an analysis of interacting elements in science learning tasks may improve learning. Studies on the effects of reducing element interactivity on students’ achievement and motivation are also scarce. Research on non-cognitive aspects of learning suggests that motivation is necessary to sustain students’ engagement in learning. However, if the complexity of learning tasks is so high that students experience repeated failures, their motivation is not sustained. Therefore, both cognitive and non-cognitive factors play a crucial role in students’ learning and both must be present to ensure an optimal learning environment. The overarching aim of this thesis is to investigate the cognitive (i.e., students’ achievement and cognitive processes in terms of element interactivity) and non-cognitive aspects (i.e., self-concept and other motivational factors) of students’ learning of science. The thesis includes five studies. The first study showed that the five main findings from past self-concept research were applicable to the Grade 7 students from Singapore selected for the study. Students’ sense of competence in a curriculum domain enhanced their future achievement in that domain only, except for physics and math, which showed interrelatedness (i.e., the enhancement was transferable from one domain to the other). The findings showed a strong interplay between academic self-concept and achievement and highlighted the important role that academic self-concept plays in determining students’ learning outcomes. Therefore, strategies to enhance students’ self-concept should be implemented in schools. The results of the second study showed strong positive correlations between students’ achievement and their motivation within a school year. Students’ Grade 6 (final primary school year) achievement did not strongly contribute to their motivation in Grade 7, indicating the importance of providing an optimal learning environment in Grade 7 for a positive start to their secondary school education. The third study showed how the interactions between the elements (i.e., element interactivity) in problem solving tasks reflect their level of complexity and how the number of operational lines that students used to solve problems could indicate their level of expertise in problem solving in that domain. This study highlighted the role of element interactivity as a planning tool for learning tasks and how teachers may use it to gain insights into students’ cognitive processes. The fourth study involved an intervention, which reduced element interactivity during science instruction, and the results revealed that students’ achievement improved, and their science self-concept was maintained. The results and implications of the first four studies were used to design a dual-approach instruction to facilitate both cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of students’ learning in the fifth and final study. The results of the final intervention study indicated that the dual-approach instruction was beneficial. The experimental group of students outperformed the comparison group in both cognitive and non-cognitive factors. Results from multiple regression analyses revealed that those who experienced the intervention not only had higher achievement than those in the comparison group in the complex problem tasks, but also had higher motivation (i.e., self-regulation, task goal, inquiry, and educational and career aspirations) and higher academic self-concept (i.e., sense of competence). This thesis demonstrates that there are strong associations and a significant interplay between students’ achievement and motivation levels (i.e., cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of learning). The analysis of learning tasks and instruction in terms of element interactivity enables the scaffolding of complex learning tasks to suit students’ cognitive levels, leading to higher achievement. Higher achievement contributes to higher motivation levels, including students’ academic self-concept. When learning environments attend to basic psychological needs (i.e., a sense of competence, autonomy, and relatedness), students’ motivation is enhanced and when motivated students experience learning that is within their ability and cognitive load capacities, their self-beliefs and motivation in the learning domain are sustained. Attention to both cognitive and non-cognitive factors in learning situations maximizes students’ learning potential and should therefore be strongly considered by educators and curriculum planners

Advancing primary teachers’ awareness of the nature of science through communities of science practice

Traditional school science education practices (teacher as director, learning of de-contextualized conceptual knowledge through acquisition, practical exercises to demonstrate known phenomena) continue to enjoy an extraordinary level of popularity in primary and secondary school curricula. Concurrently, and in all likelihood, as a consequence of these teaching approached, many students have little or no interest or engagement in science. Despite recent advancements of, and reforms in, pedagogical approaches, numerous factors impact on primary teachers' willingness to adopt new practices. Challenges include the duration of professional development associated with the reform, institutional and individual teacher characteristics, context (physical environment, human interactions and school policies) and teacher beliefs (about science, science learning and science teaching). An inquiry-based, student-led, mentor-supported science program named MyScience has been implemented in a number of Australian schools to address these issues. MyScience builds communities of science practice to broaden primary teachers' perceptions of what it means to learn about science and of ways to engage students and enhance their understanding of the nature of science (NOS). This chapter reports qualitative and quantitative research findings from participating primary teachers following their involvement and participation in MyScience. Qualitative results revealed teachers' learning through participation in MyScience, and the findings contributed to the design of an online quantitative survey. Quantitative results showed observable gains in NOS for participating teachers, compared to a control group. Implications for science teaching and learning in primary school community of practice settings are discussed.28 page(s

Simultaneous testing of four decades of academic self-concept models

In separate studies on academic self-concept, previous research has shown: (1) the distinctiveness of a cognitive and an affective component, (2) the domain specificity of self-concepts, (3) the reciprocal effects of self-concept and achievement, (4) the internal/external frame of reference in self-concept development, (5) the reciprocal effects of the internal/external frame of reference, (6) the big-fish-little-pond effect, and (7) the interrelatedness of self-concepts in similar domains. The present study demonstrates that all of these seven findings are replicable and may be synthesized in a single study with a sample of students in Singapore. Secondary 1 students (7th graders; N=275) were surveyed with 24 items about their academic self-concepts in physics, English, and math in two components (cognitive and affective), and their respective achievement scores were recorded over two time points. Confirmatory factor analysis found that the cognitive and affective components of academic self-concept were separable. The students’ self-concepts in different curriculum domains were distinct, supporting the domain specificity of self-concepts. The frame of reference and reciprocal effects were both supported, but only for the cognitive component of self-concept. Positive and statistically significant correlations between physics and math suggest that these curriculum domains were interrelated. Results of self-concept studies in schools can encourage and guide the design of interventions that could enhance students’ self-concept for positive sustainable effects on desirable educational outcomes. Attempts to improve learning outcomes should emphasize an enhancement of specific components of academic self-concept in domain-specific and related curriculum domains for optimal effects

Effects of a Dual-Approach Instruction on Students’ Science Achievement and Motivation

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of an intervention on students’ achievement and motivation. The intervention was in the form of an instructional approach named Dual-Approach Instruction since it was designed to facilitate both the cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of students’ learning. The intervention effects were assessed through a cluster-level assignment design, which compared the control and intervention groups’ achievement and motivational outcomes. A total of seven teachers and 427 grade 7 students participated in this study. Four teachers were assigned to the intervention condition and participated in a series of workshops on Dual-Approach Instruction. These teachers then applied the intervention to two topics, Speed and Density, with 231 students. The rest of the teachers and students were in the control group. Multiple regression analyses of students’ achievement and motivation pre-test and post-test scores indicated that the intervention had a significant effect on students’ achievement in complex problem solving, as well as in the following six motivational attributes: self-regulation, engagement, sense of competence, task goal orientation, education aspiration, and career aspiration in science. The results suggest that Dual-Approach Instruction benefits students in terms of dual outcomes: science achievement and motivation

Effects of a dual-approach instruction on students' science achievement and motivation

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of an intervention on students’ achievement and motivation. The intervention was in the form of an instructional approach named Dual-Approach Instruction since it was designed to facilitate both the cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of students’ learning. The intervention effects were assessed through a cluster-level assignment design, which compared the control and intervention groups’ achievement and motivational outcomes. A total of seven teachers and 427 grade 7 students participated in this study. Four teachers were assigned to the intervention condition and participated in a series of workshops on Dual-Approach Instruction. These teachers then applied the intervention to two topics, Speed and Density, with 231 students. The rest of the teachers and students were in the control group. Multiple regression analyses of students’ achievement and motivation pre-test and post-test scores indicated that the intervention had a significant effect on students’ achievement in complex problem solving, as well as in the following six motivational attributes: self-regulation, engagement, sense of competence, task goal orientation, education aspiration, and career aspiration in science. The results suggest that Dual-Approach Instruction benefits students in terms of dual outcomes: science achievement and motivation

The effects of load reduction instruction on educational outcomes : An intervention study on hands-on inquiry-based learning in science

Load reduction instruction (LRI) is an instructional approach designed to manage the cognitive load on students as they learn complex learning materials. According to Cognitive Load Theory, complex learning is associated with high cognitive load and when not effectively managed, could impede learning. Inquiry-based learning with hands-on component, where students conduct experiments to find solutions to problems, are known to incur high cognitive load. In this study, we examined the effects on students' educational outcomes when the five key principles of the LRI framework were implemented to reduce the cognitive load of inquiry-based learning with hands-on involvement. Multiple regression analysis was used to compare the educational outcomes of the intervention and control groups. The control group also experienced hands-on inquiry-based learning, but without LRI. Results showed that students in the intervention group had better outcomes, indicating the effectiveness of LRI in managing the high cognitive load of complex instruction

Domain-specificity of self-concept and parent expectation influences on short-term and long-term learning of physics

Background: Students' academic self-concepts are known to be domain specific. Researchers have also identified two related components of self-concept:cognitive (how competent students feel about a subject domain) and affective (their interest in the subject). This paper examines whether both components are domain specific. Research has also shown that parents tend to influence children's academic behaviours and choices, but it is unclear whether parent influences would also be domain specific. Aim: This paper examined whether both the cognitive and affective components of self-concept in learning were domain specific with regard to learning physics and whether students' perceived parent support in learning physics would have short-term and long-term influences. Sample: A sample of secondary 1 students (7th graders) in Singapore responded to 29 items in a survey about their selfconcepts in learning physics (competence and interest), self-concepts in English (competence and interest), perceived parent expectations in physics, engagement in learning physics (a short-term outcome), and aspiration to learn physics in future (a longterm outcome). Method: Structural equation modelling was conducted to establish the 7 factors. Path analysis examined the relations of physics self-concepts to engagement (a short-term outcome) and aspiration (a long-term outcome). The paths from parent expectations were also examined. Result: The cognitive and affective components of self-concept were highly correlated, but only within respective domains. Physics self-concepts were uncorrelated with English self-concepts. The path from competence in physics to engagement was statistically significant, but not the path to aspiration. Paths from interest in physics to both outcomes were positive. Competence in English did not have positive relations with outcomes in physics, but interest in English had a positive relation with engagement in physics. Parent expectations had positive influences on both engagement and aspiration. Conclusion: The results provided partial support for the domain specificity of both the cognitive and affective components of self-concept. Parental influences tended to be strong even when the impacts of self-concepts are controlled

Self-concept a game changer for academic success for high-achieving Australian Indigenous and non-Indigenous students : Reciprocal effects between self-concept and achievement

Indigenous Australians are highly disadvantaged educationally and on all socioeconomic indicators, but graduating from university largely closes this gap. However, despite clear examples of Indigenous success, little research has focused on the drivers of success of high-achieving Indigenous students to emulate their success. Thus, the explicit purpose of our study is to identify psychological drivers of Indigenous academic success for high-achieving students and compare these to those of high-achieving nonIndigenous students. To accomplish this purpose, we test the reciprocal effects model (REM) of self-concept and achievement for high-achieving Indigenous students (N = 493) and matched nonIndigenous students (N = 586) in primary and secondary schools. Academic achievement and self-concept were reciprocally related over three annual time waves, supporting the REM for high-achieving Indigenous and nonIndigenous students. Furthermore, results were invariant over two within-person facets (time and content-domain—math vs. English) and two between-person facets (Indigenous vs. nonIndigenous, and primary vs. secondary students). The results have important policy/practice implications for the drivers of success for high-achieving Indigenous students, education of high-achieving students more generally, and self-concept theory and research