Systemic hematogenous maintenance of memory inflation by MCMV infection.

Several low-grade persistent viral infections induce and sustain very large numbers of virus-specific effector T cells. This was first described as a response to cytomegalovirus (CMV), a herpesvirus that establishes a life-long persistent/latent infection, and sustains the largest known effector T cell populations in healthy people. These T cells remain functional and traffic systemically, which has led to the recent exploration of CMV as a persistent vaccine vector. However, the maintenance of this remarkable response is not understood. Current models propose that reservoirs of viral antigen and/or latently infected cells in lymph nodes stimulate T cell proliferation and effector differentiation, followed by migration of progeny to non-lymphoid tissues where they control CMV reactivation. We tested this model using murine CMV (MCMV), a natural mouse pathogen and homologue of human CMV (HCMV). While T cells within draining lymph nodes divided at a higher rate than cells elsewhere, antigen-dependent proliferation of MCMV-specific effector T cells was observed systemically. Strikingly, inhibition of T cell egress from lymph nodes failed to eliminate systemic T cell division, and did not prevent the maintenance of the inflationary populations. In fact, we found that the vast majority of inflationary cells, including most cells undergoing antigen-driven division, had not migrated into the parenchyma of non-lymphoid tissues but were instead exposed to the blood supply. Indeed, the immunodominance and effector phenotype of inflationary cells, both of which are primary hallmarks of memory inflation, were largely confined to blood-localized T cells. Together these results support a new model of MCMV-driven memory inflation in which most immune surveillance occurs in circulation, and in which most inflationary effector T cells are produced in response to viral antigen presented by cells that are accessible to the blood supply

Autonomy and Its Role in English Language Learning: Practice and Research

This chapter picks up discussion in the previous edition of this handbook of how the concept of autonomy has influenced language education and applied linguistics in recent years. It begins by discussing the philosophical and practical origins of learner autonomy in language education and particularly in English language teaching and how these have developed over the last 10 years. Key practical initiatives and research findings are reviewed to illuminate how autonomy has been interpreted in relation to learners, teachers, and the learning situation; how it has been linked or contrasted with other constructs; and how fostering autonomy has been seen as a part of pedagogy. Recent developments from the earlier edition are discussed regarding metacognition and, in particular, various contextual dimensions of learner autonomy. Other emerging topics are also reviewed, including learner autonomy in the world of digital/social media, learner autonomy in curriculum design and published materials, and the relation of learner autonomy to plurilingual perspectives. The chapter discusses issues in each of these areas, potential strategies for developing autonomy and effective learning, and possible future directions for research and practice

Using Data and Stories to Understand Personal Connections to Nature and Attachment to Place

Metro conducted two studies to better understand perspectives of people of color in parks and nature. A region-wide survey conducted in partnership with Oregon State University resulted in statistically significant data representative of residents across the region. Meanwhile, community engagement invited people of color to share their experiences of nature through a series of workshops. This session will explore how these data and stories deepen our understanding of what it means to facilitate connections between people and nature. • Seventy-eight percent agreed that their favorite Metro park or natural area facilitates social bonding, and 68% agreed that their favorite park fosters emotional connections to place. Workshop participants described the importance of spending time outside with friends and family. • Ninety-four percent report feeling a connection with nature when visiting their favorite Metro park. When asked “what words or short phrases would you associate with the word nature”, the most common themes focused on nature as a place that provides a sense of calm, relaxation and tranquility. There were no clear differences between responses of people of color and white people. Workshop participants portrayed nature as healing, peaceful and rejuvenating • People of color were significantly more interested than white people in the hands-on experience of caring for trails; harvesting seeds or planting native plants; storytelling in nature; and in learning how agencies manage and care for public land. Workshop participants expressed the desire to help actively care for the land and foster respect for public space in their own communities