Učinak pandemije COVID-19 na migracije unutar zemalja Europske unije

The COVID-19 virus was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan (China), and as early as January 2020, the World Health Organization expressed its concern and shortly afterwards officially declared a pandemic globally. This pandemic has brought the world economy, way of life, culture and migration to a state we have never encountered before. All countries within the European Union have at one time greatly restricted or banned entry and exit from their borders. Population movements and migration, like the economy, are most affected by this pandemic. Before the pandemic, the countries of the European Union had cultivated freedom of movement within their member states, but they were suddenly forced to impose severe restrictions and controls on their borders that prevented daily migrations of the population. The measures adopted varied from country to country, depending on the assessment of experts within them and on the number of those infected and the current epidemiological situation.Virus COVID-19 prvi je put identificiran u prosincu 2019. godine u Wuhanu (Kina), a već u siječnju 2020. Svjetska zdravstvena organizacija izrazila je zabrinutost i nedugo zatim službeno proglasila globalnu pandemiju. Ova pandemija dovela je svjetsku ekonomiju, način života, kulturu i migraciju u stanje kakvo nikada prije nismo imali. Sve zemlje unutar Europske unije svojedobno su uvelike ograničile ili zabranile ulazak i izlazak sa svojih granica. Kretanja stanovništva i migracije, kao i gospodarstvo, najviše su pogođeni ovom pandemijom. Prije pandemije, zemlje Europske unije su njegovale slobodu kretanja unutar svojih država članica, ali su odjednom bile prisiljene nametnuti stroga ograničenja i kontrole na svojim granicama koje su sprječavale svakodnevne migracije stanovništva. Donesene mjere su se razlikovale od zemlje do zemlje, ovisno o procjeni stručnjaka unutar njih te o broju zaraženih i trenutnoj epidemiološkoj situaciji

Die Tätigkeit jugoslawischer kommunistischer Militärgerichte in Kroatien gegen Ende des II. Weltkriegs und in der Nachkriegszeit

Rad je rezultat istraživanja do sada uglavnom nekorištene arhivske građe koja se odnosi na djelovanje jugoslavenskih komunističkih vojnih sudova u Hrvatskoj potkraj Drugoga svjetskog rata i u poraću. Ta je tema do sada bila veoma malo istraživana i s motrišta povjesnice i s motrišta drugih društvenih znanosti. Vojni sudovi bili su dio represivnoga sustava totalitarne komunističke vlasti, koja je potkraj rata i u neposrednom poraću provodila nemilosrdan obračun i s ratnim protivnicima, ali i s osobama i organizacijama koji su i u budućnosti mogli biti idejni ili politički suparnici komunizmu. Većina procesuiranih osoba bili su civili, koji su u montiranim i veoma skraćenim postupcima te uglavnom bez dokaza često osuđivani na smrtne kazne i konfiskaciju cjelokupne imovine. Zbog toga jugoslavenski komunistički vojni sudovi pripadaju grupi revolucionarnih ili prijekih sudova.This work is the result of research of the mostly unused archives regarding the activities of Yugoslav communist military courts in Croatia at the end of World War Two and in the postwar period. This topic has not been researched much from the standpoint of history and other social sciences. Military courts were part of the repressive system of totalitarian communist rule fighting relentlessly against war enemies, but also people and organisations which could have in the future been ideological or political opponents to communism. Most of the persons tried in court were civilians convicted in short political trials mostly without evidence and sentenced to death with their property taken away from them. Yugoslav communist military courts thus belong to the group of revolutionary courts or courts martial.Die vorliegende Arbeit basiert auf der Untersuchung von bislang meist unerforschtem Archivmaterial, das Auskunft gibt über die Tätigkeit jugoslawischer kommunistischer Militärgerichte in Jugoslawien gegen Ende des II. Weltkriegs und in der Nachkriegszeit. Bislang war dies ein wenig erforschtes Thema, sowohl in seinem historischen Aspekt als auch von der Warte anderer Gesellschaftswissenschaften. Die Militärgerichte gehörten zum Repressionssystem der totalitären kommunistischen Herrschaft, die gegen Ende des Krieges und in der unmittelbaren Nachkriegszeit nicht nur mit Kriegsgegnern unbarmherzig abrechnete, sondern auch mit Einzelpersonen und Organisationen, die in der Zukunft als mögliche ideelle oder politische Gegner des Kommunismus auftreten konnten. Die prozessuierten Menschen waren größtenteils Zivilisten, die in Schauprozessen und wesentlich verkürzten Gerichtsverfahren sowie meist ohne belastendes Beweismaterial oft zum Tode verurteilt wurden, unter Beschlagnahmung des gesamten Eigentums. Daher gehören die jugoslawischen kommunistischen Militärgerichte zur Gruppe der Revolutionsoder Standgerichte

Der Aufbau des Netzes jugoslawischer kommunistischer Militärgerichte während des Zweiten Weltkriegs und in der Nachkriegszeit

Rad se uglavnom temelji na neobjavljenoj i objavljenoj arhivskoj građi pomoću koje su istražene okolnosti nastanka i normativna određenja vojnih sudova koje su tijekom Drugog svjetskog rata i poraća ustrojavali jugoslavenski komunisti. Sustav vojnih sudova je organizacijski i normativno nastajao postupno te je cjelovito ustrojen tek u završnim godinama rata, kad su jugoslavenski komunisti oblikovali i druga glavna represivna tijela. No normativna određenja i ustroj vojnih sudova neprekidno su bili jasno podređeni partijskim interesima. Na taj su način nastajale norme i ustroj koji je u svakom pogledu bio u suprotnosti sa suvremenim nekomunističkim pravosudnim modelima.The paper is mostly based on both published and unpublished archives for researching the normative determinants and circumstances of the emergence of military courts established in the periods during and after the Second World War by Yugoslav Communists. The organisational and normative system of military courts emerged gradually and was fully established in the last years of World War II, when the Yugoslav Communists created other major repressive bodies. However, the normative determinants and structure of military courts were continually governed by party interests. Thus appeared the norms and structure which were in every way in opposition to other contemporary non-communist judiciary models.Die vorliegende Arbeit basiert hauptsächlich auf veröffentlichtem, aber auch nicht veröffentlichtem Archivmaterial, anhand dessen die Begleitumstände untersucht wurden, unter denen während des Zweiten Weltkriegs und in den Nachkriegsjahren von jugoslawischen Kommunisten Militärgerichte gegründet und normativ eingerichtet wurden. Das Netz von Militärgerichtshöfen entstand in organisatorischer und normativer Hinsicht nur schrittweise und erhielt erst in den letzten Kriegsjahren eine ganzheitliche Struktur, als die jugoslawischen Kommunisten auch andere wichtige Einrichtungen der staatlichen Repression aufbauten. Der Aufbau und die normativen Vorlagen der Militärgerichte dienten stets ganz klar den Interessen der Partei. Auf diese Weise entstanden Strukturen und wurden Vorschriften festgelegt, die in jeder Hinsicht in krassem Gegensatz zu den Modellen der zeitgenössischen nicht kommunistischen Rechtssprechung standen

Migration Processes and Identities in the Literary Works of Amelia Batistich

Krajem 19. i početkom 20. stoljeća došlo je do pojačanoga iseljavanja Hrvata na Novi Zeland zbog političkih i ekonomskih zbivanja u Domovini. U radu se prati integracijski proces na početcima novoga života na Novom Zelandu kroz književno stvaralaštvo novozelandske književnice hrvatskoga podrijetla Amelije Batistich. Njezina je književnost inspirirana poviješću Hrvata na Novom Zelandu i njihovom prilagodbom novim životnim uvjetima u multikulturalnom okruženju. Zbirka pripovijedaka An Olive Tree in Dalmatia, kao i roman Pjevaj vilo u planini po svojem su sadržaju uronjeni u obiteljsko, povijesno, religijsko, baštinsko i mitsko, kroz priče preneseno pamćenje, koje vlastiti identitet pronalazi u isprepletenosti dvaju prostora, bivšega i sadašnjega.At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, there was an increase in the emigration of Croats to New Zealand due to political and economic events in their homeland. From the time of their immigration to the present day, Croatian New Zealanders have preserved an awareness of their ethnic origin and have gradually integrated into New Zealand society. Through the hard work and perseverance of the first generation, new generations of Croatian descendants have been able to attend specialized schools, colleges and universities and today are fully integrated into New Zealand society. In the process they preserved their Croatian identity and founded numerous societies through which they nurtured and built their religious, cultural and political identities. The paper chronicles this integration process through the literary work of Amelia Batistich, a New Zealand writer of Croatian origin. Inspired by the history of Croats in New Zealand and their adjustment to new living conditions in a multicultural environment, her work is immersed in the family, historical, religious and mythical memories passed down from her ancestors and which find their identity in the intertwining of two spaces, the former and the present. In her literary work, written mainly in English, she reflects on the legacy of her ancestors and their need to shape their identity in a multicultural environment defined by hybridity and the necessity to find one’s place in a given space

Podravka in Markets with a Strong Economy of Minority Ethnic Communities

Ovaj rad prikazuje djelovanje Podravke na globalnim tržištima, s posebnim naglaskom na ekonomiju manjinskih etničkih zajednica. Tvrtka broji značajne poslovne uspjehe u brojnim zemljama diljem svijeta, a razlog tome je pomno osmišljeno poslovanje na domaćem i inozemnom tržištu, ali i činjenica što diljem svijeta žive i djeluju hrvatski iseljenici i njihovi potomci. Mnogi od njih dio su upravo manjinske etničke ekonomije. Uvidom u poslovne rezultate utvrđeno je da Podravka uspješno izgrađuje svoj položaj na globalnom tržištu, pa tako i u zemljama s izraženim ekonomijama manjinskih etničkih zajednica. Zahvaljujući uspješnom poslovnom balansu radi kojeg opstaje i širi se na globalnom svjetskom tržištu, tvrtka je u pandemijskoj 2020. i 2021. godini zabilježila rast proizvodnje i prihoda, naročito na tržištima s izraženim udjelom manjinskih etničkih ekonomija.This paper presents Podravka\u27s activities in global markets, with special emphasis on the ethnic economies. The company has significant successes in many countries around the world, and the reason for this is the carefully designed business in the domestic and foreign markets, but also the fact that Croatian emigrants and their descendants live and work around the world. Many of them are part of the minority ethnic economy. From the insight into the business results we established that Podravka is successfully developing its position on the global market, including in countries with strong economies of minority ethnic communities. Thanks to a successful business balance that survives and expands in the global market, the company recorded growth in production and revenue in the pandemic years of 2020 and 2021, especially in markets with a share of minority ethnic economies

Migrants\u27 Perceptions of Key Factors Contributing to Their Migration from Croatia and Decision to Remain Abroad

Hrvatska se kontinuirano suočava s padom broja stanovnika, ponajviše zbog niske stope nataliteta te migracije mladih i kvalificiranih radnika iz Hrvatske. Stoga je važno razumjeti glavne pokretače migracija, položaj hrvatskih migranata u inozemstvu te čimbenike koji mogu potaknuti njihov povratak. U ovom će se radu prikazati i analizirati dio empirijskih rezultata istraživanja Demografski potencijal hrvatskog iseljeništva koje provodi Institut za migracije i narodnosti u sklopu projekta »Mreža 2050 – Demografija, od izazova do odgovora«, a koji se odnosi na prva dva od spomenutih aspekata. U anketnom ispitivanju sudjelovalo je 497 ispitanika (Hrvata koji trenutačno žive u inozemstvu a većina ih je napustila Hrvatsku između 2016. i 2021.) koji su putem online upitnika dali svoje mišljenje o čimbenicima utjecaja na vlastitu odluku o iseljavanju. Upitnik je sadržavao uglavnom zatvorena pitanja s mogućnošću davanja i otvorenog odgovora. Predstavljeni su i raspravljeni glavni mikro i makročimbenici koji utječu na migraciju i aspiracije za migracijom prema percepciji sudionika te percepcije o aktualnim životnim okolnostima. Rezultati su pokazali da su čimbenici na makrorazini, koji se odnose na radne uvjete i stopu zaposlenosti, povezani s čimbenicima na mikrorazini, kao što je osobni socioekonomski status. Radne mogućnosti i radno okruženje smatrani su glavnim razlozima odlaska, a politička situacija donekle važnim čimbenikom koji utječe na osobnu kvalitetu života.Croatia has been facing a population decline, mainly due to a low birth rate and the emigration of young and qualified workers. Considering the historical and dynamic aspects of emigration (Draženović, Kunovac and Pripužić, 2018), leading to depopulation, it is necessary to investigate all contributing factors in Croatia and explore potential models and measures to mitigate these unfavourable processes. Apart from Germany, Croatian citizens have emigrated mostly to Ireland and Austria since the country acceded to the EU (Pokos, 2017). Research confirms that the number of Croatian citizens who immigrated to Germany, Ireland and Austria in 2016 was, on average, 62% higher than the official data reported by the Republic of Croatia (Jerić, 2019). The increasingly intensive emigration of the young and able-bodied population additionally contributes to a rapidly ageing population, exerting strong pressure on the sustainability of the pension system (Družić, Beg and Raguž Krištić, 2016) and underscores the importance of investigating the reasons for emigration and the factors essential for return. Migration is also an important area of interest for the European Union due to its exceptional impact on all aspects of society. Increased opportunities for mobility, advances in technology that provide access to information sources, and societal changes strongly suggest the need for policymakers to examine the micro, meso, and macro drivers that influence migration or potentially influence a person\u27s decision not to migrate or remigrate. Governments require migration analysis to create informed migration policies, including citizen participation in the policy development process. The perspectives of migrants and their behaviour should be taken into account when creating policies to better understand the key success factors needed for the desired outcomes of migrants (European Commission, 2020). According to Fargues (2017), migration is a complex process that is constantly changing as a result of various local, international, and global situations, highlighting the need for con¬tinual investigation and repeated surveying of the population. Within the current demographic climate, the World Youth Alliance Croatia (SSMH) launched the project “Network 2050 – Demography, From Challenges to Answers”, co-financed by the European Social Fund. The project is based on intersectoral cooperation, identified as necessary for improving collaborative efforts to address the effects of negative demographic trends on the social and economic development of Croatia and develop measures for demographic revitalisation. This paper will present the data and analysis of the empirical results of the research conducted by the Institute for Migration and Ethnic Studies. The study focuses on emigrants\u27 opinions and perspectives regarding the factors that influenced their decision to migrate. This includes their own perceptions of the situation in Croatia, as well as abroad in their host country, which played a role in their decision-making process and continues to potentially impact them. Additionally, the paper explores the emigrants’ perception of their current life circumstances. The target group comprised Croats currently living as expatriates in European countries. A total of 497 respondents, Croats currently living abroad, most of whom left Croatia between 2016 and 2021, took part in the survey. Three main research questions guided the investigation: 1) What are the key drivers of migration at the micro, meso, and macro levels that influence the decision to emigrate or stay, according to the perception of emigrants from Croatia?; 2) What factors influence the decision of Croats to stay abroad?; and, 3) What are the key factors that influence the decision to return to Croatia? For the purposes of this paper, the general results related to research questions 1 and 2 will be presented. The instrument used for data collection was an online questionnaire that respondents filled out independently. The questionnaire consisted of 62 questions, mostly closed-ended, with only a few open-ended questions to accommodate additional information if participants chose to elaborate on their perceptions. Including this option also allowed for the possibility of results that were not expected by the research team. The questions were divided into five thematic chapters: sociodemographic data, migration status, socioeconomic status, returnee motivational status, and identity and value system. The questionnaire was administered with special attention to the time of completion, clarity, and appropriateness of the questions. The data collection process included advertising the research project and posting calls for participation on various social media networks across platforms managed by members of various Croatian dias¬pora groups. Additionally, advertising was conducted through social groups and institutions, as well as using the snowball method. Data was collected during the period from July to October 2021. At the beginning, the purpose of the questionnaire was explained, and respondents were informed that their participation was voluntary with the possibility to withdraw at any time. Consistency in the questionnaire administration was achieved by exclusively offering it online. A total of 500 responses were received, of which 497 were valid, while three questionnaires were partially filled. Only key socio-demographic information was collected and, together with the respondents\u27 personal perceptions, it was examined in relation to the key drivers of emigration. Their perception is the key feedback that can help state authorities and policymakers in designing measures aimed at retaining the population and attract¬ing potential returnees. Their perception was viewed as potentially showing indica¬tors of migration drivers, push and pull factors, as well as demonstrating public perception around key issues and policies, and the type of information (including its accuracy) used to inform migration. Respecting the perception of the general public when creating policies is in line with the concepts promoted by the EU Parliament (2020), which encourages the participation of citizens in decision-making. According to the obtained sociodemographic data, 208 respondents (41.9%) were female, and 289 respondents (58.1%) were male. The most represented age category (39%) was 30–39 years old. Additionally, 24% of respondents were between 40 and 49 years old, 22% were between 18 and 29 years old 9.5 % were between 50 and 59 years old, 3.2% were 60–69 years old and 2% were between 70 and 81 years old. This indicates that the majority of respondents who leave are younger than 40, i.e. in the reproductive age group. The results obtained support the relevance of the research by Družić, Beg and Raguž Krištić (2016), who warn about the loss of the young population in Croatia, which results in population ageing. The majority (78.3%) were born in Croatia, and the next significant group (13.1%) was born in Bosnia and Herzego¬vina. The largest group of respondents, at the time of the questionnaire, lived in Germany, followed by the numerically significant groups in Great Britain, Ireland and Sweden. The trend shown by the majority of respondents coming from Germany is in line with the large wave of migration to Germany since 2013 when Croatia entered the EU, and since July 2015 when the labour market in Germany was opened to Croatia. Jurić (2022) and Pokos (2017) describe Germany as still the most desirable country for Croatian emigration. The results showed that macro-level factors related to working conditions and employment rates influence micro-level factors, such as socioeconomic status. Work opportunities and the working environment were perceived as somewhat important because respondents believe that these aspects affect their personal quality of life. An interesting result is that the number of respondents who stated that they were married or in a partnership doubled after moving. It is worth mentioning that Jang, Cast¬erline and Snyder (2014) warn that the longer the time spent abroad, the stronger the ties made, potentially leading to the establishment of family life connected to the host country. This could negatively affect the potential decision to return. The influence of this factor at the micro level requires further research to show the possible impact of marriages abroad on the mobility of new families and their possible return to Croatia, especially if Croatia\u27s goal is to encourage the return of its emigrants. The results of this study, as well as the recommendations of researchers such as Kis, Ozdemir and Ward (2015) on the importance of improving working conditions and wages as a means of improving living conditions, are useful for formulating strategies for population retention. Additionally, certain political restrictions can negatively affect the achievement of the country\u27s migration goals (Boswell, 2002), which, in the case of Croatia, involves return migration and population retention

Der Aufbau des Netzes jugoslawischer kommunistischer Militärgerichte während des Zweiten Weltkriegs und in der Nachkriegszeit

Rad se uglavnom temelji na neobjavljenoj i objavljenoj arhivskoj građi pomoću koje su istražene okolnosti nastanka i normativna određenja vojnih sudova koje su tijekom Drugog svjetskog rata i poraća ustrojavali jugoslavenski komunisti. Sustav vojnih sudova je organizacijski i normativno nastajao postupno te je cjelovito ustrojen tek u završnim godinama rata, kad su jugoslavenski komunisti oblikovali i druga glavna represivna tijela. No normativna određenja i ustroj vojnih sudova neprekidno su bili jasno podređeni partijskim interesima. Na taj su način nastajale norme i ustroj koji je u svakom pogledu bio u suprotnosti sa suvremenim nekomunističkim pravosudnim modelima.The paper is mostly based on both published and unpublished archives for researching the normative determinants and circumstances of the emergence of military courts established in the periods during and after the Second World War by Yugoslav Communists. The organisational and normative system of military courts emerged gradually and was fully established in the last years of World War II, when the Yugoslav Communists created other major repressive bodies. However, the normative determinants and structure of military courts were continually governed by party interests. Thus appeared the norms and structure which were in every way in opposition to other contemporary non-communist judiciary models.Die vorliegende Arbeit basiert hauptsächlich auf veröffentlichtem, aber auch nicht veröffentlichtem Archivmaterial, anhand dessen die Begleitumstände untersucht wurden, unter denen während des Zweiten Weltkriegs und in den Nachkriegsjahren von jugoslawischen Kommunisten Militärgerichte gegründet und normativ eingerichtet wurden. Das Netz von Militärgerichtshöfen entstand in organisatorischer und normativer Hinsicht nur schrittweise und erhielt erst in den letzten Kriegsjahren eine ganzheitliche Struktur, als die jugoslawischen Kommunisten auch andere wichtige Einrichtungen der staatlichen Repression aufbauten. Der Aufbau und die normativen Vorlagen der Militärgerichte dienten stets ganz klar den Interessen der Partei. Auf diese Weise entstanden Strukturen und wurden Vorschriften festgelegt, die in jeder Hinsicht in krassem Gegensatz zu den Modellen der zeitgenössischen nicht kommunistischen Rechtssprechung standen

Podravka in Markets with a Strong Economy of Minority Ethnic Communities

Ovaj rad prikazuje djelovanje Podravke na globalnim tržištima, s posebnim naglaskom na ekonomiju manjinskih etničkih zajednica. Tvrtka broji značajne poslovne uspjehe u brojnim zemljama diljem svijeta, a razlog tome je pomno osmišljeno poslovanje na domaćem i inozemnom tržištu, ali i činjenica što diljem svijeta žive i djeluju hrvatski iseljenici i njihovi potomci. Mnogi od njih dio su upravo manjinske etničke ekonomije. Uvidom u poslovne rezultate utvrđeno je da Podravka uspješno izgrađuje svoj položaj na globalnom tržištu, pa tako i u zemljama s izraženim ekonomijama manjinskih etničkih zajednica. Zahvaljujući uspješnom poslovnom balansu radi kojeg opstaje i širi se na globalnom svjetskom tržištu, tvrtka je u pandemijskoj 2020. i 2021. godini zabilježila rast proizvodnje i prihoda, naročito na tržištima s izraženim udjelom manjinskih etničkih ekonomija.This paper presents Podravka\u27s activities in global markets, with special emphasis on the ethnic economies. The company has significant successes in many countries around the world, and the reason for this is the carefully designed business in the domestic and foreign markets, but also the fact that Croatian emigrants and their descendants live and work around the world. Many of them are part of the minority ethnic economy. From the insight into the business results we established that Podravka is successfully developing its position on the global market, including in countries with strong economies of minority ethnic communities. Thanks to a successful business balance that survives and expands in the global market, the company recorded growth in production and revenue in the pandemic years of 2020 and 2021, especially in markets with a share of minority ethnic economies