Variation in pH, EC, and minor ions (dissolved Fe, dissolved Mn, Cu²⁺, and Zn²⁺) during tomato growth in the closed hydroponic system.

<p>Variation in pH, EC, and minor ions (dissolved Fe, dissolved Mn, Cu²⁺, and Zn²⁺) during tomato growth in the closed hydroponic system.</p

Changes in plant height, electric conductivity (EC), and number of fruits during tomato growth in a closed hydroponic system.

<p>Vertical dashed lines indicate when new nutrient solution was added.</p

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) photos of the precipitates from nutrient solution.

<p>‘c’ indicates amorphous clusters and ‘p’ indicates plates.</p

Comparison of ion concentrations determined by analytical instruments [i.e., cations by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), anions by ion chromatography (IC)] and on-site measurements [i.e., K⁺, Na⁺, Cl⁻by ion-specific electrodes (ISE) and NO₃^– and PO₄^3– by commercial kit].

<p>Comparison of ion concentrations determined by analytical instruments [i.e., cations by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), anions by ion chromatography (IC)] and on-site measurements [i.e., K⁺, Na⁺, Cl⁻by ion-specific electrodes (ISE) and NO₃^– and PO₄^3– by commercial kit].</p

Variation in the saturation index (SI) of several carbonate and phosphate minerals during tomato growth in the closed hydroponic system.

<p>Vertical dashed lines indicate when new nutrient solution was added.</p

Variation in pH, EC, and major ions (NO₃^–-N, PO₄^3–-P, Ca²⁺, SO₄^2–, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, and Cl^–) during tomato growth in the closed hydroponic system.

<p>Variation in pH, EC, and major ions (NO₃^–-N, PO₄^3–-P, Ca²⁺, SO₄^2–, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, and Cl^–) during tomato growth in the closed hydroponic system.</p

Summary of cultivation condition, sampling time, and nutrient solution injection time.

<p>Summary of cultivation condition, sampling time, and nutrient solution injection time.</p

Dynamics of nutrition uptake rates of macro nutrients and secondary nutrients during tomato growth in the closed hydroponic system.

<p>Dynamics of nutrition uptake rates of macro nutrients and secondary nutrients during tomato growth in the closed hydroponic system.</p

Characterizing nutrient uptake kinetics for efficient crop production during <i>Solanum lycopersicum var</i>. <i>cerasiforme</i> Alef. growth in a closed indoor hydroponic system

<div><p>A balanced nutrient supply is essential for the healthy growth of plants in hydroponic systems. However, the commonly used electrical conductivity (EC)-based nutrient control for plant cultivation can provide amounts of nutrients that are excessive or inadequate for proper plant growth. In this study, we investigated the kinetics of major and minor nutrient uptake in a nutrient solution during the growth of tomato (<i>Solanum lycopersicum var</i>. <i>cerasiforme</i> Alef.) in a closed hydroponic system. The concentrations of major and minor ions in the nutrient solution were determined by various analytical methods including inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), ion chromatography (IC), ion specific electrodes, and/or colorimetric methods. The concentrations of the individual nutrient ions were compared with changes in the EC. The EC of the nutrient solution varied according to the different growth stages of tomato plants. Variation in the concentrations of NO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, and K⁺ was similar to the EC variation. However, in the cases of PO₄³⁻, Na⁺, Cl⁻, dissolved Fe and Mn, Cu²⁺, and Zn²⁺, variation did not correspond with that of EC. These ions were generally depleted (to 0 mg L⁻¹) during tomato growth, suggesting that these specific ions should be monitored individually and their supply increased. Nutrient uptake rates of major ions increased gradually at different growth stages until harvest (from < 3 mg L⁻¹ d⁻¹ to > 15 mg L⁻¹ d⁻¹). Saturation indices determined by MINEQL+ simulation and a mineral precipitation experiment demonstrated the potential for amorphous calcium phosphate precipitation, which may facilitate the abiotic adsorptive removal of dissolved Fe, dissolved Mn, Cu²⁺, and Zn²⁺.</p></div

FK506, an Immunosuppressive Drug, Induces Autophagy by Binding to the V‑ATPase Catalytic Subunit A in Neuronal Cells

The drug FK506 (tacrolimus, fujimycin) exerts its immunosuppressive effects by regulating the nuclear factor of the activated T-cell (NFAT) family of transcription factors. However, FK506 also exhibits neuroprotective effects, but its direct target proteins that mediate these effects have not been determined. To identify the target proteins responsible for FK506’s neuroprotective effects, the drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS) method was performed using label-free FK506, and LC–MS/MS analysis of the FK506-treated proteome was also performed. Using DARTS and LC–MS/MS analyses in combination with reference studies, V-ATPase catalytic subunit A (ATP6V1A) was identified as a new target protein of FK506. The biological relevance of ATP6V1A in mediating the neuroprotective effects of FK506 was validated by analyzing FK506 activity with respect to autophagy via acridine orange staining and transcription factor EB (TFEB) translocation assay. These analyses demonstrated that the binding of FK506 with ATP6V1A induces autophagy by activating the translocation of TFEB from the cytosol into the nucleus. Because autophagy has been identified as a mechanism for treating neurodegenerative diseases and because we have demonstrated that FK506 induces autophagy, this study demonstrates that FK506 is a possible new therapy for treating neurodegenerative diseases