Relationship between Income-poverty and Food insecurity in Rural Far-western Mid-hills of Nepal

For the purpose of this study, sample was selected through stratified random sampling from Baitadi district, which falls in rural Far-western Hills of Nepal. Both income and consumption measure of poverty revealed that problem of poverty is more severe in Melauli, which is relatively remote village devoid of transportation, communication, market, and other developmental services. Education, occupation, gender of household head, and family size are found to be the most important factors that affect income-poverty as well as consumption-poverty (food insecurity). Caste and landholding size has a significant effect on poverty when we consider food insecurity. Households with illiterate head, head engaged in laboring, female-head, larger family size, Occupational Caste household, and small holding are suffering from both income-poverty and consumption-poverty in greater extent. Income-poverty measure shows the higher incidence, gap, and severity of poverty compared to food insecurity for all the variables considered for the study. This could be due to inclusion of non-food expenses while constructing poverty line, and is also due nature of consumption itself, which is relatively continuous compared to income. However, in Melauli, incidence, depth, and severity of both poverty measures are closer. This may be due to shortcoming of income-poverty measure to take into account of spatial factor. Therefore, adoption of poverty line for whole region i.e., Rural Western Hills could mislead understanding of poverty. Thus, consumption-poverty is very relevant in the case where construction of location specific income-poverty line demands extra cost. This can further be justified by significantly higher chance of non-poor, in terms of income-poverty, being food insecure, and lower chance of income-poor being food secure in Melauli compared to Patan.Income-poverty; consumption-poverty; Baitadi; householdIncome-poverty, consumption-poverty, Baitadi district.

A Poverty Analysis in Baitadi District, Rural Far Western Hills of Nepal: An Inequality Decomposition Analysis

Occupational caste is deprived in terms of education, and landholding. Due to this laboring and agriculture (specially small animals like goats and poultry) remain the prominent source of income for them. Average income from salaried job is the highest followed by remittance and that from laboring is the lowest. This led to the high concentration of Occupational caste under third and fourth income quartile (poorer). A share of income from agriculture in total income is the highest and the share from laboring is the lowest. Relative concentration coefficient (RCC-ci or gi) shows salaried job has both the highest income disequalizing effect (ci = 1.56 or gi = 1.49) as well as the highest factor inequality weight (wici) followed by agriculture. In case of Melauli, however, salaried job followed by remittance has the highest income disequalizing effect. Negative values of Relative Concentration Coefficient and factor inequality weight for laboring indicate that income from it has the income equalizing effect. Thus, agricultural promotion in rural areas based on labor demand increasing policies with proper market arrangement for the agricultural produce will be helpful to reduce the income inequality. In addition, regulation regarding working hour and minimal wage rate should be strictly enforced for the welfare of those involved in laboring, which is also the poorest.Coefficient of variation; gini-coefficient; relative concentration coefficient; factor inequality weight

Poverty and Food Insecurity in Nepal A Review

Nepal being the poorest country in the world, poverty remains one of the crucial development agenda in Nepal since it started its development effort in 1956. Therefore, this review paper analyzes the poverty and food insecurity in Nepal. Macro economic indicators of the country i.e., Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate and inflation rate shows that the country is historically a low growth country with inflation rate always higher than the GDP growth rate. Therefore, macroeconomic indicators are not in favorable condition to tackle the overarching problem of poverty incidence in the country. Since 1976/77, poverty incidence is in increasing trend in Nepal. It was only in 2003/04, some progress in reducing poverty was reported, which was mainly due to the significantly higher inflow of remittance compared to earlier years, rapid urbanization, and an increase in non-farm incomes. This resulted not only in the decline in proportion of population suffering from poverty but also decline in the absolute number of population suffering from poverty. However, such decline in incidence of poverty was achieved at the cost of increased inequality.The gini coefficient increased from 0.24 in the year 1984/85 to 0.41 in 2003/04. Imbalanced growth in rural and urban areas could be the reason for increase in gini coefficient. Reduction of poverty in urban areas remains always high compared to that of rural areas. Therefore, poverty incidence remains always the highest in Mid-western and Farwestern rural hills. Also, poverty and food insecurity is the highest among female headed household, dalit and ethnic communities, small landholding households, households engaged in laboring and agriculture. This is mainly due to unequal distribution of resources such as land, social discrepancy, and lack of access to basic social and economic structures. Government has been giving the fi rst priority to the reduction of poverty since eighth five year plan (1992). But the government’s programs are failed to reach the target population. For instance government programs represent less than 10% of the national food deficit. Therefore, besides in-depth analysis of poverty at household level in order to understand location specifi c problem of poverty and food insecurity, expansion of government programs focusing on targeted population is very critical in dealing with the problems of poverty and food insecurity.poverty; food-insecurity; socio-economics; inequality;

Effect of climate variables on yield of major food-crops in Nepal -A time-series analysis-

Climate change influences crop yield vis-à-vis crop production to a greater extent in countries like Nepal where agriculture depends largely on natural circumstances. Plausible scenarios of climate change like higher temperatures and changes in precipitation will directly affect crop yields. Therefore, this study assesses the effect of observed climate variables on yield of major food-crops in Nepal, namely rice, wheat, maize, millet, barley and potato based on regression model for historical (1978-2008) climatic data and yield data for the food-crops. The yield growth rate of all the food-crops is positive. However, the growth rate for all crops, except potato and wheat, is below population growth rate during the period. Climate variables like temperature and precipitation are the important determinants of crop yields. Trend of precipitation is neither increasing nor decreasing significantly during this period. However, temperature is increasing by 0.7 0C during the period. Climate variables show some influences on the yield of these major food-crops in Nepal. Increase in summer rain and maximum temperature has contributed positively to rice yield. Also, increase in summer rain and minimum temperature has positive impact on potato yield. However, increase in summer rain and maximum temperature adversely affected the yield of maize and millet. Increase in wheat and barley yield is contributed by current trend of winter rain and temperature. Consideration of spatial variation in similar type of study in Nepal that will be helpful in identifying the region more vulnerable to climate change in terms of crop yield is highly recommended.Climate variables; temperature; rainfall; food-crops; Nepal

Assessment of food self-sufficiency and food security situation in Nepal

Realizing the importance of food self-sufficiency in achieving the household food security, this paper tried to assess the food self-sufficiency situation in village areas of Nepal. Agriculture was the main source of livelihood and Bahun/Chhetri was the dominant ethnic group. Involvement of households in agriculture was found declining with the attainment of higher level of education resulting into higher concentration of illiterate and just literate manpower in this sector. The major resource determining food self-sufficiency of households, land holding and coverage of irrigation was higher among Bahun/Chhetri ethnic group and in Tarai ecological region. The better irrigation coverage together with relatively high assess to production resources led to the higher yield among Bahun/Chhetri ethnic group and in Tarai. Thus, Tarai was experiencing surplus food crops production, which was merely enough to fulfill the deficit of Hills and Mountain regions. Food self-sufficiency was achieved among 72% of households in Tarai region while the figure of Mountain region was only 11%. Similarly, the highest proportion (53%) of Bahun/Chhetri households achieved food self-sufficiency compared to mere 10% of Occupational caste households. Together with small land holding and land productivity, production shift from food crops to cash crops were also the major factors responsible for food self-insufficiency. Purchasing was the most dominant means to fulfill the deficit food. About 19% of food self-insufficient households were unable to meet minimum level of food security threshold income for deficit months. This constituted 10% of sample households, who were in chronic food insecurity situation. The incidence of chronic food insecurity as well as poverty gap was the highest in female-headed households, Mountain region, Occupational caste, daily wage laborers and small landholders. Education received the highest priority for the cash income expenditure followed by food items and agriculture promotion. This expenditure patterns show the positive indication to move towards food self-sufficiency and ultimately to food security if provided with better off farm employment opportunities and better market for both farm produces and essential inputs

A Study on Rural Poverty Using Inequality Decomposition in Western Hills of Nepal: A Case of Gulmi District

Involvement of higher proportion of economically active population in agriculture and laboring among the Occupational caste resulted into higher incidence of poverty, which is also severer and deeper. This resulted into as high as 71% incidence of poverty in Banjhkateri, purely remote village. The incidence, depth and severity of poverty are the highest among large family size households, illiterate households, and small land and livestock holding households. Share of income from agriculture, remittance, and salaried job shares is the most significant one contributing 46.1%, 23.3% and 19.0% of total income, respectively. However, income from salaried job and remittance has income disequalizing effect and also has higher factor inequality weight acting as the source of income inequality. Agriculture and laboring, upon which huge proportion of economically active population is engaged and entry is also not restricted, however has income equalizing effect. This suggests the need for promotion of labor-intensive agriculture as a better rural development policy in the rural Nepalese context. In the context of lack of well-defined working hours as well as minimum wage rate such rural development policies should be supplemented by formulation and effective enforcement of labor policy

Collection and marketing of non-timber forest products by the Chepang community in Chitwan district of Nepal

Chepangs are highly marginalized indigenous nationalities of Nepal, who live nearby the forests that are rich in Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs) of commercial importance. These NTFPs can be a potential source of income for Chepangs. This study describes the role of Chepangs in the marketing channel of those NTFPs and analyses the household socio-economic characteristics that influence the collection and marketing of NTFPs by Chepangs in Shaktikhor VDC of Chitwan district using backward multiple regression method. Empirical evidences show that collection and marketing of NTFPs is not an attractive source of income especially for those relatively better-off Chepang households who possess higher landholdings, food self-sufficiency, and income from other alternative sources. This is because the current price offered for the NTFPs collected by the community is very nominal, that do not even cover the labour costs involved. Praja Cooperative Limited (PCL), a Chepang community based institution in Shaktikhor, is struggling to provide better prices for Chepangs. However, it is facing challenges due to limited institutional management capacity of Chepangs. Further empowerment of PCL can contribute to improve the bargaining power of Chepang community in NTFP trade.backward multiple regression, household socio-economic characteristics, indigenous nationalities, marketing channel, Praja Cooperative Limited

NEURO-ANATOMICAL EXPLANATION OF THE MODE OF ACTION OF AGNI KARMA IN PAIN MANAGEMENT OF MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS

AgniKarma is a para-surgical procedure, Agni and Karma which means the Karma accomplished by the application of Agni (heat). According to Acharya Sushruta "The procedure in which the Samyaka Dagdha Vrana is produced by Agni is called the Agni Karma.It is frequently indicated in many musculoskeletal disorders like pain. Pain is a vital function of the nervous system in providing the body with a warning of potential or actual injury. Nociceptors are the free nerve endings of primary afferent A δ and C fibres. A δ and C fibres synapse with secondary afferent neurones in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Glycine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are important neurotransmitters acting at inhibitory interneurons. The spinothalamic tract and the spinoreticular tract are the two main pathways that carry nociceptive signals to higher centres in the brain. On the basis of Ayurvedic Classics pain is caused by vitiated Vata Dosha and Agni Karma counter acts on it due to its Ushna Guna, as it is exactly opposite to Sheetaguna of Vata. This is supported by quotation of Yajurveda "Agni Himasya Bhaishja"

Migration and Remittance in Nepal : A Review of the Push-Pull Factors and Socioeconomic Issues

Migration has long been an important livelihood option for the Nepalese people. In 1815, migration was institutionalized through the recruitment of Gurkha soldiers into the (British) Indian Army. Prior to this, some of the defeated soldiers in the Anglo-Gorkha war sought employment in the army in Lahore. After the 2000s, there was a significant increase in the migration of youths mainly due to global economic liberalization and the unstable political situation in Nepal at the time. At present, remittance contributes to more than a quarter of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP). Although remittance was identified as an important reason for the recent decrease in poverty incidence, it was also blamed for increasing inequality. Taking all these factors into consideration, this study briefly assesses the history of migration in Nepal based on a review of the existing literature and views migration from the perspective of push and pull factors. The study analyzes the growing importance of remittance in the national economy as well as in the household economy and follows up with a discussion on the socioeconomic issues related to migration. The study concludes with a discussion on the prospective issues related to migration in Nepal

Large Cardamom (Amomum Subulatum Roxb.) Production, Marketing and Trade in the Indian Sub-continent <Article>

Large cardamom contributes significantly to the household and regional economies in the Eastern Himalayas of the Indian sub-continent, and to the national economy as well. This paper aims to assess the dynamics of large cardamom production, marketing, and trade in Bhutan, Nepal, and India. The assessment is based on data compiled through several government statistics and publications. A brief field visit was also conducted in Birtamod, Nepal, in September 2017. Nepal and India are suffering a loss in their cardamom yield due to disease infestation, poor crop management (including aged plantation), and changing climate. India has a fairly organized market for large cardamom facilitated by the Spices Board India, where its price is set through auction. The system of advance payment to the farmers would cause stress for farmers to sell their produce at a lower price. Price volatility remains the major concerns in the marketing and trading of large cardamom. Differential provisions in inter-country trade is restricting the market and trade of large cardamom produced in the region. Similarly, the adulteration of large cardamom with “false cardamom” remains the major threat to large cardamom production in the Eastern Himalayas. The product-specific data suggests more than 80 percent of large cardamom exported from India goes to Pakistan, suggesting Pakistan to be the biggest global market for the large cardamom produced in the Indian sub-continent. Production constraints—specifically, diseases; poor agronomic practice and inefficient curing in traditional way; marketing constraints through price supports and packaging with geographical indications; and trading constraints, such as custom and phytosanitary barriers in inter-country trading, improper identification of the international market, and adulteration issues need to be addressed urgently for the sustainability of large cardamom production in the Eastern Himalayas. This will be critical for improving the welfare of thousands of small households in the region.We would like to acknowledge JSPS Grantin-Aid for Scientific Research (15H05253) for the support provided in conducting research on regional agricultural trade in the Indian sub-continent, mainly Bhutan, India and Nepal. This paper is a part of the overall study of the regional agricultural trade