Choosing Short: An Explanation of the Similarities and Dissimilarities in the Distribution Patterns of Binding and Covaluation

Covaluation is the generalization of coreference introduced by Tanya Reinhart. Covaluation distributes in patterns that are very similar yet not entirely identical to those of binding. On a widespread view, covaluation and binding distribute similarly because binding is defined in terms of covaluation. Yet on Reinhart's view, binding and covaluation are not related that way: binding pertains to syntax, covaluation does not. Naturally, the widespread view can easily explain the similarities between binding and covaluation, whereas Reinhart can easily explain the dissimilarities. Reciprocally, the widespread view finds it harder to explain the dissimilarities, whereas Reinhart finds it harder to explain the similarities. Reinhart and others have proposed more than one explanation of the similarities, but as I argue, these explanations do not work. Hence although I adopt Reinhart's view, I propose a new explanation of the similarities and dissimilarities between binding and covaluation: While Reinhart has invoked semantic structure only to explain dissimilarities, I do so to explain both similarities and dissimilarities at once. Finally, I examine in light of this approach the topics of language acquisition, only-constructions, the identity predicate, the Partee/Bach/Higginbotham problem, the Dahl puzzle and its recent versions by Roelofsen

Bar chart comparing cumulative silica-laden macrophage (SLM) scores in tissues from badgers with positive and negative <i>M</i>. <i>bovis</i> infection status.

<p>Bars represent the cumulative SLM score per tissue across groups of <i>M</i>. <i>bovis</i> positive (n = 30) and <i>M</i>. <i>bovis</i> negative (n = 30) individuals.</p

Silica-laden macrophages (SLMs), bronchial lymph node, badger.

<p>Focally-extensive aggregation of SLMs in the absence of collagen deposition. (A) SLMs are strongly birefringent under polarizing light. Massons trichrome stain. x100. (B) No evidence of associated collagen deposition on Massons trichrome stain (stains collagen blue). x100.</p

Distribution and cumulative silica-laden macrophage (SLM) score across badger lymph nodes, tonsils, liver and spleen.

<p>Bars represent the cumulative SLM score per tissue across the study population of 60 badgers.</p

Distribution of silica-laden macrophage (SLM) scores in lymph nodes and lung tissue of <i>M</i>. <i>bovis</i> positive and negative badgers.

<p>Distribution of silica-laden macrophage (SLM) scores in lymph nodes and lung tissue of <i>M</i>. <i>bovis</i> positive and negative badgers.</p

Silica-laden macrophages (SLMs), lung, badger.

<p>Multifocal interstitial accumulations of macrophages engorged with crystalline material. (A) Crystalline material has a light brown color and finely granular to spicular appearance in routinely stained sections. H&E. x200. (B) Crystalline material is strongly birefringent under polarizing light, consistent with silica and silicates. H&E, x200. (C) No evidence of associated collagen deposition on Massons trichrome stain (stains collagen blue). x200.</p

Validation of badger lymph node scoring categories.

<p>Boxplots represent the total number of silica-laden macrophage (SLM)-positive fields of lymph nodes within each scoring category 1–3 (see <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0190230#pone.0190230.g001" target="_blank">Fig 1</a>). 10 slides were examined per category, and 1000 fields assessed per slide. A positive field was defined as one that contained at least one SLM. One outlier has been omitted from this graph (Scoring category 3: 867).</p

Distribution of silica-laden macrophage (SLM) scores in lymph nodes of badgers with a high and low lung SLM score, respectively.

<p>Distribution of silica-laden macrophage (SLM) scores in lymph nodes of badgers with a high and low lung SLM score, respectively.</p

Grouped bar graph illustrating the proportion (in %) of badgers in each scoring category (x-axis) among age classes.

<p>Given are examples of score distribution among age classes (young (n = 10); adult (n = 31); old (n = 19)) for an intrathoracic (A) and extrathoracic (B) lymph node (LN). (A) Left tracheobronchial LN; (B) Left popliteal LN. Differences in distribution between age classes were statistically significant (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0190230#pone.0190230.t003" target="_blank">Table 3</a>).</p

Environmental dust inhalation in the European badger (<i>Meles meles</i>): Systemic distribution of silica-laden macrophages, pathological changes, and association with <i>Mycobacterium bovis</i> infection status

<div><p>Chronic inhalation of crystalline silica and silicates may lead to severe lung disease in humans, termed silicosis. The disease is an occupational health concern in miners and related professions worldwide. Silicosis is also a strong risk factor for tuberculosis in humans. Due to its subterranean lifestyle, the European badger (<i>Meles meles</i>) is continuously exposed to environmental dust, while this species is also susceptible to tuberculosis, caused by <i>Mycobacterium bovis</i>. To date, a thorough investigation of mineral dust retention and its possible implication as a risk factor for mycobacterial infection in badgers has not been performed. The aims of this retrospective histological study were (1) to describe the systemic tissue distribution of silica-laden macrophages (SLMs) in badgers; (2) to compare the amount of SLMs in tissues of badgers of differing <i>M</i>. <i>bovis</i> infection status, pulmonary SLM burden and age; and (3) to assess whether inflammation was associated with SLMs. We assessed lung, lymph nodes, liver and spleen of 60 wild-caught badgers of known <i>M</i>. <i>bovis</i> infection status for the presence of SLMs using polarizing light microscopy. SLMs were consistently present within the lungs and were widely distributed throughout the lymphatic system. No inflammatory reaction to SLMs, as occurs in human silicosis, was observed in any tissue. Distribution and amount of SLMs were similar between <i>M</i>. <i>bovis</i> positive and negative badgers, and we were not able to show an association between the amount of SLMs and <i>M</i>. <i>bovis</i> infection status. The amount of SLMs within intra- and extrathoracic lymph nodes was positively associated with the amount of pulmonary SLMs, and with age. This is the first report of substantial and systemic tissue retention of mineral dust particles in a mammalian species lacking associated chronic inflammation (i.e. silicosis). We further highlight different pathogenetic mechanisms underlying silicosis and benign SLM accumulations following siliceous dust inhalation.</p></div