Distribution of grants awarded by <i>NeTropica</i> and IFS to scientists of the various Central American countries.

<p>The number of IFS awards granted to Central American scientists from 1999 to 2010 countries was taken from the IFS Web page (<a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001055#pntd.0001055-International1" target="_blank">[14]</a>; <a href="http://www.ifs.se/Database/search.asp" target="_blank">http://www.ifs.se/Database/search.asp</a>).</p

Distribution of <i>NeTropica</i> funds to CA countries in relation to their overall scientific productivity.

<p>The percentage of the funds allocated by NeTropica from 1999 to 2010 per country is shown. The percentage of the overall scientific production of CA countries from 1996 to 2008 was calculated from data of the SCImago Journal & Country Rank database (<a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001055#pntd.0001055-SCImago1" target="_blank">[11]</a>; <a href="http://www.scimagojr.com/" target="_blank">http://www.scimagojr.com/</a>).</p

Scientific productivity of <i>NeTropica</i> consortia expressed in number of indexed published articles.

<p>Scientific productivity of <i>NeTropica</i> consortia expressed in number of indexed published articles.</p

Applications received and grants awarded by <i>NeTropica</i> between 1999 and 2010.

<p>The average number of scientists per applied/funded project is three.</p

Snakes Causing High Incidence of Envenomings in Africa, Asia, and Latin America

<p>(A) Echis ocellatus (saw-scaled viper, family Viperidae, from Nigeria), (B) Naja naja (cobra, family Elapidae, from Sri Lanka), and (C) B. asper (terciopelo or equis, family Viperidae, from Costa Rica) are responsible for many snake bite envenomings in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Central America, respectively. Envenomings by E. ocellatus and B. asper, as well as by related viperid species, induce prominent local tissue damage that often results in permanent sequelae and disability, and systemic alterations associated with haemorrhage, coagulopathy, cardiovascular shock, and renal failure. Envenomings by N. naja and other Asiatic cobras induce systemic neurotoxic effects and local necrosis. (Image: D. A. Warrell [A and B]; Mahmood Sasa [C]) </p

Extensive Tissue Necrosis of the Lower Limb in an 11-Year-Old Boy Who Had Been Bitten Two Weeks Earlier by a B. asper in Ecuador

<p>Only antibiotic treatment had been given, so tissue damage was extensive, requiring above-knee amputation. Such pathological alterations are caused by the direct action of locally acting toxins in the venom (mostly metalloproteinases and phospholipases A₂), together with an indirect effect promoted by local inflammatory events and ischemia secondary to venom-induced vascular damage and increased intracompartmental pressure. (Image: D. A. Warrell) </p

Scientific, Technological, and Political Tasks Required to Improve the Prevention and Treatment of Snake Bite Envenoming

<p>There is an urgent need to gain a deeper knowledge of the epidemiology and clinical manifestations of snake bite envenoming around the globe, and to promote research and public health policies aimed at improving the treatment and prevention of these envenomings, particularly regarding antivenom production and distribution, as well as training of medical staff. The fulfilment of these tasks requires a concerted effort involving many actors at both national and international levels. PLA₂s, phospholipases A₂. </p

The probability that the smoothed incidence exceeded 30 bites per 100,000 inhabitants in 2003–2007.

<p>Inc = incidence.</p

Geographical extent of habitat suitable for <i>Bothrops asper</i> and location of specimens collected at ICP.

<p>ICP = Instituto Clodomiro Picado.</p

Time to hospital or clinic for populated areas at high risk of snakebites.

<p>Populated areas = areas within 2 km from a census tract centroid in a high risk of snakebites.</p