Estimating the combined costs of clinical and subclinical ketosis in dairy cows

Clinical ketosis (CK) and subclinical ketosis (SCK) are associated with lower milk production, lower reproductive performance, an increased culling of cows and an increased probability of other disorders. Quantifying the costs related to ketosis will enable veterinarians and farmers to make more informed decisions regarding the prevention and treatment of the disease. The overall aim of this study was to estimate the combined costs of CK and SCK using assumptions and input variables from a typical Dutch context. A herd level dynamic stochastic simulation model was developed, simulating 385 herds with 130 cows each. In the default scenario there was a CK probability of almost 1% and a SCK probability of 11%. The herds under the no risk scenario had no CK and SCK, while the herds under the high-risk scenario had a doubled probability of CK and SCK compared to the default scenario. The results from the simulation model were used to estimate the annual cash flows of the herds, including the costs related to milk production losses, treatment, displaced abomasum, mastitis, calf management, culling and feed, as well as the returns from sales of milk and calves. The difference between the annual net cash flows of farms in the no risk scenario and the default scenario provides the estimate of the herd level costs of ketosis. Average herd level costs of ketosis (CK and SCK combined) were €3,613 per year for a default farm and €7,371 per year for a high-risk farm. The costs for a single CK case were on average €709 (with 5 and 95 percentiles of €64 and €1,196, respectively), while the costs for a single SCK case were on average €150 (with 5 and 95 percentiles of €18 and €422, respectively) for the default farms. The differences in costs between cases occurred due to differences between cases (e.g., cow culled vs cow not culled, getting another disease vs not getting another disease).</p

Effect of voluntary waiting period on metabolism of dairy cows during different phases of the lactation.

An extended calving interval (CInt) by extending the voluntary waiting period (VWP) could be associated with altered metabolism in dairy cows. The aim of this study was first to evaluate the effects of VWP on metabolism and body condition during the first 305 days after the first calving in the experiment (calving 1), around the end of the VWP, and during pregnancy (280 d before calving 2). Second, the effects of the VWP on metabolism were determined from 2 wk before until 6 wk after calving 2. Third, individual cow characteristics were used to predict milk production and body condition of cows after different VWP. Holstein-Friesian cows (N=154, 41 primiparous (PP), 113 multiparous (MP)) were blocked for parity, milk production, and lactation persistency, randomly assigned to a VWP of 50, 125, or 200 days (VWP50, VWP125, or VWP200) and followed from calving 1 until 6 wk after calving 2. In the first 6 wk after calving 1 and from 2 wk before until 6 wk after calving 2, weekly plasma samples were analyzed for non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), β-hydroxybutyrate, glucose, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). From wk 7 after calving 1 until 2 wk before calving 2, insulin and IGF-1 were analyzed every 2 wk. Fat- and protein-corrected milk (FPCM) and body weight (BW) gain were measured weekly. Cows were divided in two parity classes based on calving 1 (PP and MP) and remained in these classes after calving 2. During pregnancy, MP cows in VWP200 had greater plasma insulin and IGF-1 concentration and lower FPCM compared with MP cows in VWP125 (insulin: 18.5 vs 13.9 µU/mL, CI 13.0 - 19.7, P<0.01; IGF-1: 198.5 vs 175.3 ng/mL ± 5.3, P=0.04; FPCM: 22.6 vs 30.0 kg/d ± 0.8, P<0.01) or VWP50 (insulin: 15.8 µU/mL, P<0.01; IGF-1: 178.2 ng/mL, P<0.01; FPCM: 26.6 kg/d, P<0.01) and had a greater daily BW gain compared with cows in VWP50 (3.6 vs 2.5 kg/d ± 0.2; P<0.01). After calving 2, MP cows in VWP200 had greater plasma NEFA concentration (0.41 mmol/L) compared with MP cows in VWP125 (0.30 mmol/L, P=0.04) or VWP50 (0.26 mmol/L, P<0.01). For PP cows, the VWP did not affect FPCM or body condition during the first lactation in the experiment, or metabolism after calving 2. Independent of the VWP, higher milk production and lower body condition before insemination were associated with higher milk production and lower body condition at the end of the lactation. Variation in these characteristics among cows could call for an individual approach for an extended VWP

Drivers and perceived constraints on Dutch dairy farms to engage in disease prevention

IntroductionWhile prevention is increasingly important in the dairy sector, implementation of cost-effective preventive measures is often lacking. To increase the use of these measures and consequently improve animal welfare and reduce financial losses for farmers, it is necessary to know the drivers and constraints of farmers to engage in prevention.MethodsTherefore, we invited farmers to participate in an online questionnaire, which contained questions about their behavior toward either claw health or calf health. We used the theory form the Stage of Change model, COM-B, as well as the Theory of Planned Behavior to formulate our questions. We used the responses of 226 farmers in our analyses, who were equally distributed over the two groups of diseases.Results and discussionWe found that 63.5% of responding farmers were in the action phase or the maintenance phase to prevent claw diseases and even more (85.4%) to prevent calf diseases. The responses also suggest that many farmers have the knowledge and skills to implement preventive measures for both claw and calf diseases. The scores for social and physical opportunities for calf diseases were significantly higher than for claw diseases and all other COM-B components were also numerically higher for calf diseases. This suggests that farmers' perception of taking preventive measures against claw diseases is more difficult than taking preventive measures against calf disease. The automation of preventive behavior scored relatively low for both groups of diseases, which suggests that farmers may need reminders to persist in their activities and support to create habitual prevention behaviors. From these results, we concluded that creating social norms, supporting discussions among farmers, and using environmental adaptations may result in more preventive behavior

Effect of voluntary waiting period on metabolism of dairy cows during different phases of the lactation

An extended calving interval (CInt) by extending the voluntary waiting period (VWP) could be associated with altered metabolism in dairy cows. The aim of this study was first to evaluate the effects of VWP on metabolism and body condition during the first 305 d after the first calving in the experiment (calving 1), around the end of the VWP, and during pregnancy (280 d before calving 2). Second, the effects of the VWP on metabolism were determined from 2 wk before until 6 wk after calving 2. Third, individual cow characteristics were used to predict milk production and body condition of cows after different VWP. Holstein-Friesian cows (N = 154, 41 primiparous [PP], 113 multiparous [MP]) were blocked for parity, milk production, and lactation persistency, randomly assigned to a VWP of 50, 125, or 200 d (VWP50, VWP125, or VWP200) and followed from calving 1 until 6 wk after calving 2. In the first 6 wk after calving 1 and from 2 wk before until 6 wk after calving 2, weekly plasma samples were analyzed for nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), β-hydroxybutyrate, glucose, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). From wk 7 after calving 1 until 2 wk before calving 2, insulin and IGF-1 were analyzed every 2 wk. Fat- and protein-corrected milk (FPCM) and body weight (BW) gain were measured weekly. Cows were divided in two parity classes based on calving 1 (PP and MP) and remained in these classes after calving 2. During pregnancy, MP cows in VWP200 had greater plasma insulin and IGF-1 concentration and lower FPCM compared with MP cows in VWP125 (insulin: 18.5 vs. 13.9 µU/mL, CI 13.0-19.7, P < 0.01; IGF-1: 198.5 vs. 175.3 ng/mL ± 5.3, P = 0.04; FPCM: 22.6 vs. 30.0 kg/d ± 0.8, P < 0.01) or VWP50 (insulin: 15.8 µU/mL, P < 0.01; IGF-1: 178.2 ng/mL, P < 0.01; FPCM: 26.6 kg/d, P < 0.01) and had a greater daily BW gain compared with cows in VWP50 (3.6 vs. 2.5 kg/d ± 0.2; P < 0.01). After calving 2, MP cows in VWP200 had greater plasma NEFA concentration (0.41 mmol/liter) compared with MP cows in VWP125 (0.30 mmol/liter, P = 0.04) or VWP50 (0.26 mmol/liter, P < 0.01). For PP cows, the VWP did not affect FPCM or body condition during the first lactation in the experiment, or metabolism after calving 2. Independent of the VWP, higher milk production and lower body condition before insemination were associated with higher milk production and lower body condition at the end of the lactation. Variation in these characteristics among cows could call for an individual approach for an extended VWP

A Scoping Review of On-Farm Colostrum Management Practices for Optimal Transfer of Immunity in Dairy Calves

Newborn calves are agammaglobulinemic and rely for their first immune protection almost completely on the transfer of immune constituents via colostrum. Inadequate colostrum management practices such as on-farm colostrum storage practices and colostrum feeding methods could affect immune components in colostrum and subsequently immune status of the newborn calf. We conducted a scoping review to identify all literature on the interactions between several colostrum management factors and immunological colostrum quality and passive transfer of immunity. Three major stages were defined: milking methods, colostrum treatment and storage, and administration procedures. Separate CAB Abstracts searches were performed for each of the subjects of interest. The search process was completed on November 9, 2020. Colostrum should be milked as soon as possible, as IgG concentration diminishes over time, probably due to dilution. To minimize bacterial contamination, it is advised to pasteurize colostrum in small batches at maximal 60°C for 30 or 60 min. Freeze/thawing of colostrum does not or only slightly affect IgG concentrations, as long as thawing is done au bain-marie and temperature does not exceed 40°C. In on-farm situations, it is difficult to determine the volume that should be fed as the variables contributing to the absorption of IgG by the newborn calf are many and include the quality of the colostrum, the bacterial contamination, the time interval between birth and first moment of feeding and the weight of the calf. Despite all knowledge regarding optimal colostrum management strategies, it remains challenging to predict the effects of certain colostrum management choices in field conditions. Therefore, we recommend measuring the colostral quality, weighing the newborn calf, adjusting the feeding volume accordingly to ensure optimal colostrum intake for each calf

A Scoping Review of On-Farm Colostrum Management Practices for Optimal Transfer of Immunity in Dairy Calves

Newborn calves are agammaglobulinemic and rely for their first immune protection almost completely on the transfer of immune constituents via colostrum. Inadequate colostrum management practices such as on-farm colostrum storage practices and colostrum feeding methods could affect immune components in colostrum and subsequently immune status of the newborn calf. We conducted a scoping review to identify all literature on the interactions between several colostrum management factors and immunological colostrum quality and passive transfer of immunity. Three major stages were defined: milking methods, colostrum treatment and storage, and administration procedures. Separate CAB Abstracts searches were performed for each of the subjects of interest. The search process was completed on November 9, 2020. Colostrum should be milked as soon as possible, as IgG concentration diminishes over time, probably due to dilution. To minimize bacterial contamination, it is advised to pasteurize colostrum in small batches at maximal 60°C for 30 or 60 min. Freeze/thawing of colostrum does not or only slightly affect IgG concentrations, as long as thawing is done au bain-marie and temperature does not exceed 40°C. In on-farm situations, it is difficult to determine the volume that should be fed as the variables contributing to the absorption of IgG by the newborn calf are many and include the quality of the colostrum, the bacterial contamination, the time interval between birth and first moment of feeding and the weight of the calf. Despite all knowledge regarding optimal colostrum management strategies, it remains challenging to predict the effects of certain colostrum management choices in field conditions. Therefore, we recommend measuring the colostral quality, weighing the newborn calf, adjusting the feeding volume accordingly to ensure optimal colostrum intake for each calf.</p

Estimating the combined costs of clinical and subclinical ketosis in dairy cows

Clinical ketosis (CK) and subclinical ketosis (SCK) are associated with lower milk production, lower reproductive performance, an increased culling of cows and an increased probability of other disorders. Quantifying the costs related to ketosis will enable veterinarians and farmers to make more informed decisions regarding the prevention and treatment of the disease. The overall aim of this study was to estimate the combined costs of CK and SCK using assumptions and input variables from a typical Dutch context. A herd level dynamic stochastic simulation model was developed, simulating 385 herds with 130 cows each. In the default scenario there was a CK probability of almost 1% and a SCK probability of 11%. The herds under the no risk scenario had no CK and SCK, while the herds under the high-risk scenario had a doubled probability of CK and SCK compared to the default scenario. The results from the simulation model were used to estimate the annual cash flows of the herds, including the costs related to milk production losses, treatment, displaced abomasum, mastitis, calf management, culling and feed, as well as the returns from sales of milk and calves. The difference between the annual net cash flows of farms in the no risk scenario and the default scenario provides the estimate of the herd level costs of ketosis. Average herd level costs of ketosis (CK and SCK combined) were €3,613 per year for a default farm and €7,371 per year for a high-risk farm. The costs for a single CK case were on average €709 (with 5 and 95 percentiles of €64 and €1,196, respectively), while the costs for a single SCK case were on average €150 (with 5 and 95 percentiles of €18 and €422, respectively) for the default farms. The differences in costs between cases occurred due to differences between cases (e.g., cow culled vs cow not culled, getting another disease vs not getting another disease)

Estimating the combined costs of clinical and subclinical ketosis in dairy cows

Clinical ketosis (CK) and subclinical ketosis (SCK) are associated with lower milk production, lower reproductive performance, an increased culling of cows and an increased probability of other disorders. Quantifying the costs related to ketosis will enable veterinarians and farmers to make more informed decisions regarding the prevention and treatment of the disease. The overall aim of this study was to estimate the combined costs of CK and SCK using assumptions and input variables from a typical Dutch context. A herd level dynamic stochastic simulation model was developed, simulating 385 herds with 130 cows each. In the default scenario there was a CK probability of almost 1% and a SCK probability of 11%. The herds under the no risk scenario had no CK and SCK, while the herds under the high-risk scenario had a doubled probability of CK and SCK compared to the default scenario. The results from the simulation model were used to estimate the annual cash flows of the herds, including the costs related to milk production losses, treatment, displaced abomasum, mastitis, calf management, culling and feed, as well as the returns from sales of milk and calves. The difference between the annual net cash flows of farms in the no risk scenario and the default scenario provides the estimate of the herd level costs of ketosis. Average herd level costs of ketosis (CK and SCK combined) were €3,613 per year for a default farm and €7,371 per year for a high-risk farm. The costs for a single CK case were on average €709 (with 5 and 95 percentiles of €64 and €1,196, respectively), while the costs for a single SCK case were on average €150 (with 5 and 95 percentiles of €18 and €422, respectively) for the default farms. The differences in costs between cases occurred due to differences between cases (e.g., cow culled vs cow not culled, getting another disease vs not getting another disease).</p

Survey on Colostrum Management by Dairy Farmers in the Netherlands

Colostrum feeding is essential for the transfer of passive immunity and health of newborn calves. Information on current colostrum management practices to reduce calf morbidity and mortality is important but lacking for Dutch dairy herds. We therefore conducted a survey to investigate colostrum management strategies on Dutch dairy farms. The survey was specifically focused on the most recently born calf and was returned by 107 respondents (response rate of 13.4%). The mean amount of colostrum fed at first feeding was 2.9 liters. Overall, 79% of farmers provided the calf with at least 6 liters of colostrum in up to three feedings. The majority of respondents (84%) claimed to provide the calf with colostrum for the first time within 2 h post-partum. Using ordinal logistic regression and Wilcoxon rank sum test, we found no differences in time to first colostrum feeding or total amount of colostrum fed between bull calves and heifer calves, respectively. Ordinal logistic regression showed no significant differences in time to first colostrum feeding or time between calving and removing the calf from the dam between AMS and conventional milking herds. Two sample T-test comparing the total volume of colostrum showed no significant difference between AMS and conventional milking herds. Time of day at which a calf was born affected both volume fed at first colostrum feeding and time until first colostrum feeding. Calves born between 00.00 and 06.00 were significantly at risk of receiving the first colostrum later as compared to calves born at other times. Calves born in the evening received on average a lower amount of colostrum at first feeding. Survey results on colostrum management on most Dutch dairy farms are in agreement with the advice to feed as soon as possible after parturition and to provide at least 6 liters within 24 h of age. The current study points at time of calving as a potential risk factor for sub-optimal colostrum feeding. Further research is necessary to determine the consequences of this observation

Metabolic changes in early lactation and impaired reproductive performance in dairy cows

This review addresses the suggestion that the decline in dairy reproductive performance, as increasingly observed these days, may be due to a hampered process of metabolic adaptation in early lactating cows. In our opinion, adaptation to the negative energy balance is a gradual process. Because almost all cows do adapt in the long run, it is not possible to classify animals as adapted or non-adapted. The use of risk factors is more appropriate in this case and is discussed in this review. Among them are the body condition score and its derivatives, feed intake, the calculated negative energy balance, and metabolic parameters like the plasma concentration of insulin or the triacylglycerol content in the liver. Moreover, factors that play a role in the link between declined reproductive performance and the metabolic situation of the cow during the early lactating period are discussed. Among these are insulin, insulin-like growth factors, leptin, neuropeptide Y, non-esterified fatty acids, thyroïd hormones, urea, and ammonia