21 research outputs found
Inhibiting Metal Oxide Atomic Layer Deposition: Beyond Zinc Oxide
Atomic
layer deposition (ALD) of several metal oxides is selectivity inhibited
on alkanethiol self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on Au, and the eventual
nucleation mechanism is investigated. The inhibition ability of the
SAM is significantly improved by the in situ H<sub>2</sub>-plasma
pretreatment of the Au substrate prior to the gas-phase deposition
of a long-chain alkanethiol, 1-dodecanethiol (DDT). This more rigorous
surface preparation inhibits even aggressive oxide ALD precursors,
including trimethylaluminum and water, for at least 20 cycles. We
study the effect that the ALD precursor purge times, growth temperature,
alkanethiol chain length, alkanethiol deposition time, and plasma
treatment time have on Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> ALD inhibition.
This is the first example of Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> ALD inhibition
from a vapor-deposited SAM. The inhibitions of Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, ZnO, and MnO ALD processes are compared, revealing the versatility
of this selective surface treatment. Atomic force microscopy and grazing-incidence
X-ray fluorescence further reveal insight into the mechanism by which
the well-defined surface chemistry of ALD may eventually be circumvented
to allow metal oxide nucleation and growth on SAM-modified surfaces
Epitaxial Atomic Layer Deposition of Sn-Doped Indium Oxide
Coherently strained, epitaxial Sn-doped
In<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (ITO) thin films were fabricated at temperatures
as low as 250 °C
using atomic layer deposition (ALD) on (001)-, (011)-, and (111)-oriented
single-crystal Y-stabilized ZrO<sub>2</sub> (YSZ) substrates. Resultant
films possess cube-on-cube epitaxial relationships with the underlying
YSZ substrates and are smooth, highly conductive, and optically transparent.
This epitaxial ALD approach is favorable compared to many conventional
growth techniques as it is a large-scale synthesis method that does
not necessitate the use of high temperatures or ultrahigh vacuum.
These films may prove valuable as a conductive growth template in
areas where high-quality crystalline thin film substrates are important,
such as solar energy materials, light-emitting diodes, or wide bandgap
semiconductors. Furthermore, we discuss the applicability of this
ALD system as an excellent model system for the study of ALD surface
chemistry, nucleation, and film growth
Low-Temperature Atomic Layer Deposition of CuSbS<sub>2</sub> for Thin-Film Photovoltaics
Copper
antimony sulfide (CuSbS<sub>2</sub>) has been gaining traction
as an earth-abundant absorber for thin-film photovoltaics given its
near ideal band gap for solar energy conversion (∼1.5 eV),
large absorption coefficient (>10<sup>4</sup> cm<sup>–1</sup>), and elemental abundance. Through careful in situ analysis of the
deposition conditions, a low-temperature route to CuSbS<sub>2</sub> thin films via atomic layer deposition has been developed. After
a short (15 min) postprocess anneal at 225 °C, the ALD-grown
CuSbS<sub>2</sub> films were crystalline with micron-sized grains,
exhibited a band gap of 1.6 eV and an absorption coefficient >10<sup>4</sup> cm<sup>–1</sup>, as well as a hole concentration of
10<sup>15</sup> cm<sup>–3</sup>. Finally, the ALD-grown CuSbS<sub>2</sub> films were paired with ALD-grown TiO<sub>2</sub> to form
a photovoltaic device. This photovoltaic device architecture represents
one of a very limited number of Cd-free CuSbS<sub>2</sub> PV device
stacks reported to date, and it is the first to demonstrate an open-circuit
voltage on par with CuSbS<sub>2</sub>/CdS heterojunction PV devices.
While far from optimized, this work demonstrates the potential for
ALD-grown CuSbS<sub>2</sub> thin films in environmentally benign photovoltaics
Porphyrins as Templates for Site-Selective Atomic Layer Deposition: Vapor Metalation and in Situ Monitoring of Island Growth
Examinations
of enzymatic catalysts suggest one key to efficient
catalytic activity is discrete size metallo clusters. Mimicking enzymatic
cluster systems is synthetically challenging because conventional
solution methods are prone to aggregation or require capping of the
cluster, thereby limiting its catalytic activity. We introduce site-selective
atomic layer deposition (ALD) on porphyrins as an alternative approach
to grow isolated metal oxide islands that are spatially separated.
Surface-bound tetra-acid free base porphyrins (H<sub>2</sub>TCPP)
may be metalated with Mn using conventional ALD precursor exposure
to induce homogeneous hydroxide synthetic handles which acts as a
nucleation point for subsequent ALD MnO island growth. Analytical
fitting of in situ QCM mass uptake reveals island growth to be hemispherical
with a convergence radius of 1.74 nm. This growth mode is confirmed
with synchrotron grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS)
measurements. Finally, we extend this approach to other ALD chemistries
to demonstrate the generality of this route to discrete metallo island
materials
Resolving the Chemically Discrete Structure of Synthetic Borophene Polymorphs
Atomically thin two-dimensional
(2D) materials exhibit superlative
properties dictated by their intralayer atomic structure, which is
typically derived from a limited number of thermodynamically stable
bulk layered crystals (e.g., graphene from graphite). The growth of
entirely synthetic 2D crystals, those with no corresponding bulk allotrope,
would circumvent this dependence upon bulk thermodynamics and substantially
expand the phase space available for structure–property engineering
of 2D materials. However, it remains unclear if synthetic 2D materials
can exist as structurally and chemically distinct layers anchored
by van der Waals (vdW) forces, as opposed to strongly bound adlayers.
Here, we show that atomically thin sheets of boron (i.e., borophene)
grown on the Ag(111) surface exhibit a vdW-like structure without
a corresponding bulk allotrope. Using X-ray standing wave-excited
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, the positions of boron in multiple
chemical states are resolved with sub-angström spatial resolution,
revealing that the borophene forms a single planar layer that is 2.4
Ã… above the unreconstructed Ag surface. Moreover, our results
reveal that multiple borophene phases exhibit these characteristics,
denoting a unique form of polymorphism consistent with recent predictions.
This observation of synthetic borophene as chemically discrete from
the growth substrate suggests that it is possible to engineer a much
wider variety of 2D materials than those accessible through bulk layered
crystal structures
Real-Time Observation of Atomic Layer Deposition Inhibition: Metal Oxide Growth on Self-Assembled Alkanethiols
Through in situ quartz crystal microbalance
(QCM) monitoring, we
resolve the growth of a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) and subsequent
metal oxide deposition with high resolution. We introduce the fitting
of mass deposited during each atomic layer deposition (ALD) cycle
to an analytical island-growth model that enables quantification of
growth inhibition, nucleation density, and the uninhibited ALD growth
rate. A long-chain alkanethiol was self-assembled as a monolayer on
gold-coated quartz crystals in order to investigate its effectiveness
as a barrier to ALD. Compared to solution-loading, vapor-loading is
observed to produce a SAM with equal or greater inhibition ability
in minutes vs days. The metal oxide growth temperature and the choice
of precursor also significantly affect the nucleation density, which
ranges from 0.001 to 1 sites/nm<sup>2</sup>. Finally, we observe a
minimum 100 cycle inhibition of an oxide ALD process, ZnO, under moderately
optimized conditions
Liquid Water- and Heat-Resistant Hybrid Perovskite Photovoltaics via an Inverted ALD Oxide Electron Extraction Layer Design
Despite rapid advances
in conversion efficiency (>22%), the environmental stability of
perovskite solar cells remains a substantial barrier to commercialization.
Here, we show a significant improvement in the stability of inverted
perovskite solar cells against liquid water and high operating temperature
(100 °C) by integrating an ultrathin amorphous oxide electron
extraction layer via atomic layer deposition (ALD). These unencapsulated
inverted devices exhibit a stable operation over at least 10 h when
subjected to high thermal stress (100 °C) in ambient environments,
as well as upon direct contact with a droplet of water without further
encapsulation
Liquid Water- and Heat-Resistant Hybrid Perovskite Photovoltaics via an Inverted ALD Oxide Electron Extraction Layer Design
Despite rapid advances
in conversion efficiency (>22%), the environmental stability of
perovskite solar cells remains a substantial barrier to commercialization.
Here, we show a significant improvement in the stability of inverted
perovskite solar cells against liquid water and high operating temperature
(100 °C) by integrating an ultrathin amorphous oxide electron
extraction layer via atomic layer deposition (ALD). These unencapsulated
inverted devices exhibit a stable operation over at least 10 h when
subjected to high thermal stress (100 °C) in ambient environments,
as well as upon direct contact with a droplet of water without further
encapsulation
In Situ X‑ray Study of the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) Formation on Graphene as a Model Li-ion Battery Anode
The solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) plays a critical
role in
the performance and safety of Li-ion batteries, but the crystal structure
of the materials formed have not been previously studied. We employ
the model system of epitaxial graphene on SiC to provide a well-defined
graphitic surface to study the crystallinity and texture formation
in the SEI. We observe, via in situ synchrotron X-ray scattering,
the formation and growth of LiF crystallites at the graphene surface,
which increase in size with lithiation dose and are textured such
that the LiF (002) planes are approximately parallel to the graphene
sheets. Furthermore, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) reveals
the composition of the SEI formed in this system to consist of LiF
and organic compounds similar to those found previously on graphite.
SEI components, other than LiF, do not produce X-ray diffraction peaks
and are categorized as amorphous. From high-resolution transmission
electron microscopy, the LiF crystallites are seen in near proximity
to the graphene surface along with additional apparently amorphous
material, which is likely to be other SEI components detected by XPS
and/or misoriented LiF. This new understanding that LiF crystallites
grow on the graphene surface with strong texturing will assist future
efforts to model and engineer the SEI formed on graphitic materials
Water Oxidation Catalysis via Size-Selected Iridium Clusters
The
detailed mechanism and efficacy of four-electron electrochemical
water oxidation depend critically upon the detailed atomic structure
of each catalytic site, which are numerous and diverse in most metal
oxides anodes. In order to limit the diversity of sites, arrays of
discrete iridium clusters with identical metal atom number (Ir<sub>2</sub>, Ir<sub>4</sub>, or Ir<sub>8</sub>) were deposited in submonolayer
coverage on conductive oxide supports, and the electrochemical properties
and activity of each was evaluated. Exceptional electroactivity for
the oxygen evolving reaction (OER) was observed for all cluster samples
in acidic electrolyte. Reproducible cluster-size-dependent trends
in redox behavior were also resolved. First-principles computational
models of the individual discrete-size clusters allow correlation
of catalytic-site structure and multiplicity with redox behavior