Have prisons become a dangerous place? Disproportionality, safety and mental health in British Prisons

In 2016, the Chief Inspector of Prisons reported that the prison service was in crisis and that ‘our prisons have become unacceptably violent and dangerous places’. In this year’s HMIP report he argues that ‘the situation has not improved; in fact, it has become worse’. It is clear that prisons in England and Wales are in chaos. A record number of people are dying, violence is at an all-time high and the living conditions for those in prison are far below acceptable standards. Moreover, there is significant evidence that many of the negative outcomes and deteriorating conditions of prison life are even worse for Black, Asian and ethnic minority (BME) prisoners

Assessing children’s empathy through a Spanish adaptation of the Basic Empathy Scale: parent’s and child’s report forms

The aim of the current research was to study cognitive and affective empathy in children aged 6–12 years old, and their associations with children’s family environment and social adjustment. For this purpose, we developed the Spanish version of the Basic Empathy Scale (BES), self- and parent-report forms. Factorial analyses confirmed a two-component model of empathy in both self- and parent-report forms. Concordance between parent–child measures of empathy was low for cognitive and affective factors. Analyses of variance on the cognitive and affective components brought a significant effect of age for self-reported cognitive empathy, with older children scoring higher than younger ones. Gender brought out a significant principal effect for self-reported affective empathy, with girls scoring higher than boys. No other main effects were found for age and gender for the rest of the factors analyzed. Children’s empathy was associated with socioeconomic status and other family socialization processes, as well as children’ social behaviors. Overall the new measures provided a coherent view of empathy in middle childhood and early adolescence when measured through self and parent reports, and illustrate the similarity of the validity of the BES in a European-Spanish culture

Functional family therapy-gangs for young people at risk of child criminal exploitation and county lines involvement: feasibility and pilot study

Executive Summary The project Functional Family Therapy Gangs (FFT-G) is an intensive, home-based, family therapy programme for the families of young people with severe behavioural challenges. It aims to improve the safety, wellbeing and stability of children and families and reduce offending. Developed by FFT LLC, the programme in this project was delivered by Family Psychology Mutual (FPM) and targeted at 10-17 year olds at risk of involvement in County Lines Drug Networks or child criminal exploitation. Trained family therapists provided a bespoke number of therapy sessions to families over three to five months, beginning with an Engagement and Motivation phase to secure participation. This was followed by a Behaviour Change phase to teach new skills designed to interrupt problematic relational patterns, before a Generalisation phase asked families to practise the skills they had learned in other contexts (such as in school, in the community or in relationships with other professionals). Which family members were involved depended on who was regarded as important to the problem being addressed. In the early stages, contact was provided to families several times a week, with home visits lasting 60-90 minutes; in later stages of the intervention, contact was reduced to weekly. The YEF funded a feasibility and pilot study of FFT-G. The feasibility study aimed to ascertain how feasible a randomised controlled trial (RCT) of the programme would be, exploring whether caseworkers would refer young people to an RCT, analysing what the most productive referral pathways were and evaluating whether enough referrals would be received to ensure adequate therapist caseloads. These questions were explored using 19 interviews with key professionals, organisational data gathering and a document review, and the intervention was delivered to 48 families in the London Borough of Redbridge (LBR). The Family Intervention Team (FIT), part of specialist services for vulnerable children within social care, referred young people to the programme. The feasibility study was delivered between October 2019 and March 2021. The pilot study then aimed to explore how many families were eligible for FFT-G; analyse the barriers to and implementation of trial recruitment; and examine a range of questions relating to the design of a potential future large-scale RCT (such as how many families can be randomised and how often, the rates of missing data at baseline testing, attrition rates and the effect sizes associated with the intervention). These questions were explored via the delivery of a pilot RCT, again delivered in LBR. Twenty-three young people’s families received the intervention, while 22 received services as usual (SAU). Nine interviews were also conducted with families. The pilot took place between March 2021 and July 2021. Both the feasibility and pilot studies were impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, requiring both the delivery and evaluation teams to adapt to challenging circumstances. In the feasibility study, FFT-G received a reasonable number of referrals (100 over 13 months), although this was lower than anticipated by therapists. The evaluator deemed completion rates to be adequate; where treatment data were collected, 61% of families enrolled completed the treatment. The pilot study found that 95 families were identified over nine months in LBR to receive the programme – 73% (69) of them were eligible for the programme after full screening, out of which 66% (45) progressed through recruitment to be randomised into the pilot RCT. In the pilot study, 74% of families received eight or more sessions, and 83% completed the programme. In terms of what the families in the service as usual group were receiving, approximately one third received an alternative parenting programme; 27% do not appear to have received any services. Key conclusions Interviews with caseworkers in the feasibility study suggested that they would, albeit reluctantly, refer young people and their families to the programme to participate in an RCT. The most common reason given was to ensure the continuation of the service. A waitlist control was preferred by some caseworkers, but the evaluator adjudged a parallel RCT to be preferable. Missing data rates in the pilot RCT were low at baseline. The RCT then measured parent-reported family functioning and young person-reported conduct problems. There was a 20% attrition rate. The evaluator deemed that in a small efficacy RCT, recruitment would be possible using only one local authority (LA). Given sample size calculations, they predicted that a sample between 51 and 248 would be required and advised aiming for the higher end of this range. Interpretation Social workers who were interviewed in the feasibility study felt that FFT-G complemented their services well. They would, albeit reluctantly, refer young people to the programme to participate in an RCT. Those most familiar with the intervention were more likely to refer, while the most common reason given for accepting an RCT was the continuation of the service. Most social workers had only a basic understanding of RCTs, and some had concerns about carrying out an RCT with vulnerable young people. They worried about causing frustration among those not receiving FFT-G, while FFT-G therapists were also wary of the disappointment experienced by social workers if the families they had taken time to recruit and refer were not part of the intervention group. After the evaluator explained the design of a waitlist control trial (where the control group would also receive the programme later), social workers were open to this possibility, recognising the need to evidence impact to secure funding. However, the evaluator concluded that a parallel RCT (where all receive some service as usual, and the intervention group also receive FFT-G) is preferable; concerns were noted that families’ waiting to receive FFT-G in a waitlist design could alter their engagement with other usual services, while the wait for any support could be too long for such vulnerable young people. In the feasibility study, FFT-G received a reasonable number of referrals (100 over 13 months). This was lower than expected by FFT-G therapists due to a number of reasons, including a lack of awareness by social workers around FFT-G, the cases not fitting the inclusion criteria and the length of time it takes to refer. The evaluator deemed completion rates to be adequate; where treatment data were collected, 67% received over eight sessions, and 61% of families completed treatment. The average number of sessions completed by families was 10.7. The pilot study found that 95 families were identified over nine months in LBR to receive the programme. These were referred either by a Family Intervention Team panel, identified in meetings with service teams, or identified via screening of the borough’s case management system. Seventy-three per cent (69) of them were eligible for the programme after full screening, out of which 66% (45) progressed through recruitment to be randomised into the pilot RCT. Recruitment to the RCT began slowly; after simplifying the communication to potential families, expanding the age eligibility range (from 10-14 to 10-17) and conducting a screen of the case management system, recruitment improved. Missing data rates in the pilot RCT were low at baseline (0% for 16 out of 21 measures and between 2% and 16% for the remaining five). The RCT then measured parent-reported family functioning and young person-reported conduct problems. These measures were deemed to be broadly suitable, but the evaluator encourages caution when drawing firm conclusions on the future suitability of these measures given the small sample size. There was a 20% attrition rate (with eight families in the SAU arm and one in the FFT-G arm of the trial not completing assessments after six months). The evaluator deems that in a small efficacy RCT, recruitment would be possible using only one LA. Given sample size calculations, they predict that a sample between 51 and 248 would be required and advise aiming for the higher end of this range. The dominant view expressed in interviews with families was that the randomisation process was acceptable, and getting additional attention and support for their child was a recurring motivation for many participating in the study. Some families also expressed a desire to participate in giving feedback on services with a view to them improving in future. Of those who received support during the study, the common view was that the support was useful, although some young people were unable to say what was helpful to them. Of those who received service as usual, most perceived the support on offer to be helpful. However, some families who received usual service expressed negative experiences with professionals and the wider system. In the pilot study, 74% of families received eight or more sessions, and 83% completed the programme. The average number of FFT-G sessions per family was 11.4. Approximately one third of families in the SAU group received an alternative parenting programme; 27% do not appear to have received any services. The study met the requirements for a full efficacy RCT by meeting four out of five ‘stop-go criteria’. The YEF has, therefore, opted to fund a further evaluation of FFT-G and will be setting up an efficacy RCT

Evaluating the impact of the London Pathway Project

Background: The London Pathway Project (LPP) is an innovative whole-systems approach to addressing the needs of offenders who have severe personality disorder, with the goal of reducing their risk of harm. Previous research has evaluated the initial implementation of the LPP. Aims: This paper focused on evaluating the impact of the LPP on a number of criminogenic needs over time and its impact on the risk of reoffending and harm compared with a similar group who did not experience the pathway. Method Data for men who had been identified for the LPP were used to explore changes in key criminogenic needs an average of 11 months after commencing on the pathway. In addition, Offender Assessment System data was used to match men who had experienced the LPP for at least 12 months to a comparison group on key demographic and criminal history variables. Changes in validated risk assessment devices and changes in practitioners’ perception of risk were examined. Results: The LPP was associated with desirable within-individual change for most of the criminogenic needs explored. However, strong non-desirable changes in lifestyle and associates were also identified, but this was particularly the case for those sentenced to prison. When compared with a matched group, those identified for the pathway showed a significant reduction on an objective measure of risk of reoffending but were rated as having significantly increased risk of harm on the basis of practitioner’s perceptions. There was no evidence that greater progression along the pathway was associated with greater benefits. Conclusions: This is the first impact evaluation of the LPP, and the results were generally positive in terms of its relation to criminogenic needs and risks. Much more research that clearly links project inputs to actual behavioural outcomes, such as later reoffending, is needed

Suitability of a three-dimensional model to measure empathy and its relationship with social and normative adjustment in Spanish adolescents: a cross-sectional study

Objectives: (1) To examine the psychometric properties of the Basic Empathy Scale (BES) with Spanish adolescents, comparing a two and a three-dimensional structure;(2) To analyse the relationship between the three-dimensional empathy and social and normative adjustment in school. Design: Transversal and ex post facto retrospective study. Confirmatory factorial analysis, multifactorial invariance analysis and structural equations models were used. Participants: 747 students (51.3% girls) from Cordoba, Spain, aged 12–17 years (M=13.8; SD=1.21). Results: The original two-dimensional structure was confirmed (cognitive empathy, affective empathy), but a three-dimensional structure showed better psychometric properties, highlighting the good fit found in confirmatory factorial analysis and adequate internal consistent valued, measured with Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega. Composite reliability and average variance extracted showed better indices for a three-factor model. The research also showed evidence of measurement invariance across gender. All the factors of the final three-dimensional BES model were direct and significantly associated with social and normative adjustment, being most strongly related to cognitive empathy. Conclusions: This research supports the advances in neuroscience, developmental psychology and psychopathology through a three-dimensional version of the BES, which represents an improvement in the original two-factorial model. The organisation of empathy in three factors benefits the understanding of social and normative adjustment in adolescents, in which emotional disengagement favours adjusted peer relationships. Psychoeducational interventions aimed at improving the quality of social life in schools should target these components of empathy

Criminal careers and early death: relationships In the Cambridge study In delinquent development

Prior research shows that convicted and incarcerated persons tend to die early, but this research does not investigate the relationships between criminal career features and early death. The aim of this article is to utilize the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development longitudinal sample of males to study this; 54 males who died early (up to age 65) are compared with 332 males who did not emigrate and did not die early. The results show that convicted offenders, early onset offenders, recidivists and chronic offenders tended to die early, but there were relatively weak relationships between early death and life-course-persistent offenders and career duration. It is concluded that much more research on the relationship between early death and criminal career features is needed, and further tests of criminological theories need to take account of the time at risk of offending

Holistic facial composite creation and subsequent video line-up eyewitness identification paradigm

The paradigm detailed in this manuscript describes an applied experimental method based on real police investigations during which an eyewitness or victim to a crime may create from memory a holistic facial composite of the culprit with the assistance of a police operator. The aim is that the composite is recognized by someone who believes that they know the culprit. For this paradigm, participants view a culprit actor on video and following a delay, participant-witnesses construct a holistic system facial composite. Controls do not construct a composite. From a series of arrays of computer-generated, but realistic faces, the holistic system construction method primarily requires participant-witnesses to select the facial images most closely meeting their memory of the culprit. Variation between faces in successive arrays is reduced until ideally the final image possesses a close likeness to the culprit. Participant-witness directed tools can also alter facial features, configurations between features and holistic properties (e.g., age, distinctiveness, skin tone), all within a whole face context. The procedure is designed to closely match the holistic manner by which humans’ process faces. On completion, based on their memory of the culprit, ratings of composite-culprit similarity are collected from the participant-witnesses. Similar ratings are collected from culprit-acquaintance assessors, as a marker of composite recognition likelihood. Following a further delay, all participants — including the controls — attempt to identify the culprit in either a culprit-present or culprit-absent video line-up, to replicate circumstances in which the police have located the correct culprit, or an innocent suspect. Data of control and participant-witness line-up outcomes are presented, demonstrating the positive influence of holistic composite construction on identification accuracy. Correlational analyses are conducted to measure the relationship between assessor and participant-witness composite-culprit similarity ratings, delay, identification accuracy, and confidence to examine which factors influence video line-up outcomes

Depression, anxiety and delinquency: Results from the Pittsburgh Youth Study

Purpose: The main aim of this research is to investigate to what extent within-individual changes in anxiety and depression are related to within-individual changes in theft and violence. Methods: The youngest sample of the Pittsburgh Youth Study (PYS), a prospective longitudinal survey of 503 boys followed up from age 7 onwards, was analyzed. Depression and anxiety were measured for boys from ages 11 to 22 as were moderate and serious forms of self-reported theft and violence. A hierarchical linear random effects model was used to investigate anxiety and depression as potential causes or outcomes of these forms of delinquency. Results: The results showed that the between-individual correlations were consistently higher than the corresponding within-individual correlations, and provided little evidence to discern the directionality of the potential relationships between depression, anxiety and delinquency. Using a random effects approach, there was limited evidence that prior depression or anxiety was related to later offending, but there was evidence that offending (particularly theft and serious violence) was associated with later increases in anxiety, and to a lesser extent depression. Conclusions: This study indicates that depression and anxiety were outcomes of offending. If replicated, this would suggest that evidence-based interventions which reduced offending would have a desirable influence in reducing depression and anxiety. However, interventions for depression should still form part of responsive interventions. More research which explores within-individual changes in longitudinal studies with repeated measures is needed

Classification of patterns of offending in developmental and life-course criminology, with special reference to persistence

Developmental and life-course criminology can be differentiated from other types of criminology by its focus on, and appreciation of, change over time in antisocial behaviour and offending, using longitudinal research. This approach emerged from a long history of longitudinal studies which culminated in the articulation of the ‘criminal careers’ perspective in the mid 1980s. Since then there have been numerous analyses and developmental and life-course theories which have attempted to explain and classify patterns of offending and antisocial behaviour over time. In this paper we consider various methods used to classify these behaviours, using the examination of persistent antisocial behaviour and offending as a case study. While sophisticated analytic techniques exist, we argue that in the case of identifying persistent offending, a focus on the duration of offending is the key consideration

The criminal careers of those imprisoned for hate crime in the UK

Hate crime research has increased, but there are very few studies examining hate crime offenders. It is, therefore, difficult to determine to what extent those who perpetrate this offence might be different from those who have not committed hate crime. This study is the first to provide an account of the demographics and criminal histories of those serving time in prison for committing a hate crime. It is based on a large complete population of offenders in the UK. Hate crime offenders released from prison were found to have prolific criminal careers, having committed a wide range and large number of different types of offences. When compared with those who committed a general (non-hate) violent offence, violent hate crime offenders were significantly older and were considerably more prolific in their previous offending. Violent hate crime appeared quantitatively, as opposed to qualitatively, different from violent non-hate crime, but this was less clearly true when those who had committed public order hate crime were compared with other public order offenders. Interventions to reduce the later offending of violent hate crime offenders should be based on the effective interventions that exist for violent offenders, but should take into account knowledge about the surprisingly prolific criminal careers of hate crime offenders