Helminth eggs from moa coprolites.

<p><i>(a)</i>, egg type 1, cf. Heterakoidea; <i>(b–c)</i>, egg type 2, undetermined Nematoda; <i>(d–e)</i>, egg type 3, Trichinellidae cf. <i>Capillaria</i>.</p

Prevalence and abundance of nematode egg types in moa coprolites.

<p>P = prevalence (proportion of coprolites in which the egg type was present), A_m = mean abundance where present, A_r = range of abundance where present. A_m and A_r are shown as eggs g⁻¹, except where a * symbol signifies the data are eggs mL⁻¹.</p

Location and taxonomic representation of moa coprolite study sites.

<p><i>(a)</i>, Moa coprolite from Dart River Valley <i>(b)</i>, Moa coprolite sites on the South Island of New Zealand, showing moa taxa represented in coprolite assemblages.</p

Prevalence of six helminth taxa identified by aDNA analysis of moa coprolites.

#<p>minimum individual moa represented by analysed coprolites based on moa haplotypes and radiocarbon dates;</p>*<p>number of clones obtained using Nem18S primers/Nem18Slong primers.</p

Phylogenetic position of 18S sequence groups obtained from moa coprolites.

<p><i>(a)</i>, apicomplexa; <i>(b)</i>, nematoda; <i>(c)</i>, trematoda. The complete maximum credibility trees are provided as <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0057315#pone.0057315.s007" target="_blank">Figs. S7</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0057315#pone.0057315.s008" target="_blank">S8</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0057315#pone.0057315.s009" target="_blank">S9</a>.</p

Network diagrams of identified moa - parasite interactions.

<p><i>(a)</i> interactions between moa species and parasite egg types, based on morphological identification of parasite eggs from 84 coprolites; <i>(b)</i> interactions between moa species and DNA sequence groups, based on DNA identifications of parasites from a subset of 16 coprolites. Parasite boxes are scaled relative to overall prevalence in analysed coprolite assemblages and moa bones are proportional to the number of coprolites analysed from each species/locality. Localities (in parentheses) are: O, Central Otago; D, Dart River Valley; E, Euphrates Cave.</p

Comparison of community parameters between species of birds of prey (solid dots) and owls (empty dots) in two geographical regions, Calabria, Italy (on the left) and Galicia, Spain (on the right).

<p>A, B: Total species richness at the component community level. Regressions lines for birds of prey (solid lines) and owls (broken lines) are also displayed. C, D. Mean species richness at infracommunity level. Bars represent the 95% confidence interval. C, D. Median value of mean intensity per host species. The regressions line for birds of prey in Calabria is shown. Bars represent the interquartilic interval. Species abbreviations: <i>Ag</i>: <i>Accipiter gentilis</i>; <i>An</i>: <i>Athene noctua</i>; <i>Ani</i>: <i>Accipiter nisus</i>; <i>Ao</i>: <i>Asio otus</i>; <i>Bb</i>: <i>Buteo buteo</i>; <i>Ca</i>: <i>Circus aeruginosus</i>: <i>Cp</i>: <i>Circus pygargus</i>; <i>Fp</i>: <i>Falco peregrinus</i>; <i>Fs</i>: <i>Falco subbuteo</i>; <i>Ft</i>: <i>Falco tinnunculus</i>; <i>Mm</i>: <i>Milvus milvus</i>; <i>Mmi</i>: <i>Milvus migrans</i>; <i>Os</i>: <i>Otus scops</i>; <i>Pa</i>: <i>Pernis apivorus</i>; <i>Sa</i>: <i>Strix aluco</i>; <i>Ta</i>: <i>Tyto alba</i>.</p

Classification of helminth taxa collected from owls in Calabria (C), southern Italy, and Galicia (G), northwest Spain, according to host specificity.

<p>Classification is based on global records of host species for each helminth taxon (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0053375#pone.0053375-Furmaga1" target="_blank">[63]</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0053375#pone.0053375-DeMuro1" target="_blank">[64]</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0053375#pone.0053375-Dubois1" target="_blank">[65]</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0053375#pone.0053375-Dimitrova1" target="_blank">[66]</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0053375#pone.0053375-SanMartn1" target="_blank">[67]</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0053375#pone.0053375-Host1" target="_blank">[68]</a> and references detailed in the text); data about the geographical distribution of helminth taxa typical from raptors is also listed. Specificity categories are defined in the text. For each helminth taxon, information is also provided about its known or putative intermediate/paratenic hosts (IH/PH) and the number of owl species it infects in Calabria and/or Galicia.</p>1<p>Host species abbreviations:</p><p>Accipitriformes (A): Ac: <i>Aquila clanga</i>; Ach, <i>Aquila chrysaetos</i>; Aco, <i>Accipiter cooperi</i>; Ag, <i>Accipiter gentilis</i>; Agu, <i>Accipiter gularis</i>; Ah, <i>Aquila heliaca</i>; Am, <i>Aegypius monachus</i>; An, <i>Accipiter nisus</i>; Ap, <i>Aquila pennata</i>; Apo, <i>Aquila pomarina</i>; Ar, <i>Aquila rapax</i>; As, <i>Accipiter striatus</i>; At, <i>Accipiter trivirgatus</i>; Bb, <i>Buteo buteo</i>; Bj, <i>Buteo jamaicensis</i>; Bl, <i>Buteo lagopus</i>; Bli, <i>Buteo lineatus</i>; Bm, <i>Buteo magnirostris</i>; Bme, <i>Buteogallus meridionalis</i>; Bp, <i>Buteo platypterus</i>; Br, <i>Buteo rufinus</i>; Ca, <i>Circus aeruginosus</i>; Cc, <i>Circus cyaneus</i>; Cg, <i>Circaetus gallicus</i>; Cm, <i>Circus macrourus</i>; Cme: <i>Circus melanoleucos</i>; Cp, <i>Circus pygargus</i>; Ec, <i>Elanius caeruleus</i>; Ef, <i>Elanoides furficatus</i>; Gc, <i>Geranospiza caerulescens</i>; Ha, <i>Haliaeetus albicilla</i>; Hd, <i>Harpagus diodon</i>; Hi, <i>Haliastur indus</i>; Hl, <i>Haliaeetus leucophalus</i>; Mc, <i>Milvago chimango</i>; Mm, <i>Milvus milvus</i>; Mmi, <i>Milvus migrans</i>; Np: <i>Neophron percnopterus</i>; Pa, <i>Pernis apivorus</i>; Ph, <i>Pandion haliaetus</i>; Te, <i>Theratopius ecaudatus.</i></p><p>Falconiformes (F): Fa: <i>Falco ardosiaceus</i>; Fb, <i>Falco biarmicus</i>; Fc, <i>Falco cherrug</i>; Fco, <i>Falco columbarius</i>; Fn, <i>Falco naumanni</i>; Fp, <i>F. peregrinus</i>; Fs, <i>Falco subbuteo</i>; Fsp, <i>Falco sparverius</i>; Fr: <i>Falco rufigularis</i>; Ft, <i>F. tinnunculus</i>; Fv, <i>Falco vespertinus</i>; Mc, <i>Milvago chimachima</i>; Pp, <i>Polyborus plancus.</i></p><p>Strigiformes (S): Aa, <i>Aegolius acadicus</i>; Ab, <i>Athene brama</i>; Af, <i>Asio flammeus</i>; Afu, <i>Aegolius funereus</i>; An, <i>Athene noctua</i>; Ao, <i>Asio otus</i>; Bbu, <i>Bubo bubo</i>; Bv: <i>Bubo virginianus</i>; Gp, <i>Glaucidium passerinum</i>; Ns, <i>Nyctea scandiaca</i>; Oa: <i>Otus asio</i>; Os, <i>Otus scops</i>; Osu, <i>Otus sunia</i>; Sa, <i>Strix aluco</i>; So, <i>Strix occidentalis</i>; Su, <i>Surnia ulula</i>; Sur, <i>Strix uralensis</i>; Sv, <i>Strix varia</i>; Ta, <i>Tyto alba.</i></p>2<p>Most species are typical from birds of prey.</p>3<p>Two species are specific to owls.</p

Group-average hierarchical cluster analysis of helminth fauna from samples of birds of prey and owls in two geographical regions based on a bray-Curtis resemblance matrix using prevalence data scaled to unity.

<p>The number on the node indicates the probability that the node is random (see text for details). A. Calabria, Italy. B. Galicia, Spain.</p

Matrix of mean values (with standard devistion in parentheses) of Bray-Curtis index of similarity (expresed as percentage) of helminth infracommunity composition between 5 owl species from the Calabria region, southern Italy.

<p>Matrix of mean values (with standard devistion in parentheses) of Bray-Curtis index of similarity (expresed as percentage) of helminth infracommunity composition between 5 owl species from the Calabria region, southern Italy.</p