Fate, fear or fight : aspirations and educational poverty traps across generations

This paper tests empirically the behavioural educational poverty traps persisting across generations through aspirations failure. Chinese natural experiments since the 1950s help identify aspirations for different generations, including parental sufferings during the Great Famine, their social class and experiences in the “(Up to the Mountains and) Down to the Countryside” movement during the Cultural Revolution, and filial in utero exposure to the Great Famine and compliance to the One-Child Policy. Exploiting nationally representative household data, we find that aspirations and educational attainments are transmitted across generations. Historically political campaigns decrease parental educational aspirations, and in utero exposure to severe undernutrition enhances fatalism. Aspirations failure in terms of less perceived importance of education in future life and fatalism that are transmitted from parents tends to decrease filial educational attainments, underlying intergenerational educational poverty traps

The Isomorphism between Negative and Interrogative: A case in Rgyalrong

Based on related data as observed in Rgyalrong, this paper examines a phenomenon Watters (2004) and Prins (2016) noticed earlier in the Sino-Tibetan/Trans-Himalayan languages they investigate—that the negative and interrogative prefixes share the same form. After describing in detail the forms and functions of negative and interrogative prefixes in the Cogtse dialect, this paper argues that in Rgyalrong, the negative and interrogative prefixes are in isomorphism. Such an isomorphic relation between negators and interrogative markers is detected not only in Rgyalrong, but also in other Sino-Tibetan languages, including Chinese. Based on related evidence gleaned from Rgyalrong, the present study proposes possible contexts and mechanisms that could have caused negators to develop to interrogative markers. While alternative questions have been suggested by Watters (2004) to be the context from which the negative-interrogative isomorphism has arisen; it is equally possible, and more cross-linguistically evidenced, that the evolution could have started from toned-down polar questions formed with a negator and some sentence-final modal (i.e. yes-no question) particle