10 research outputs found
Meeting high precision requirements of additively manufactured components through hybrid manufacturing
A hybrid approach combining the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process and post-processing operations
through 5-axis milling was employed to manufacture a Ti6Al4V aerospace component. From the design
step, the requirements and needs in all the stages of the Hybrid Additive Manufacturing process were taken
into account. A numerical simulation of distortions promoted by residual stresses during the additive
process was employed to consider material allowance. The status of the as-built and post-processed
component was analysed through scanning and CMM inspection and roughness measurements. The 3D
scanned model of the as-built LPBF-ed component was used to understand the distortion behaviour of the
component and compared to the numerical simulation. Finally, 5-axis milling operations were conducted in
some critical surfaces in order to improve surface quality and dimensional accuracy of the as-built com-
ponent. The inspection of the as-built and post-processed component showed the improvement achieved
through the proposed hybrid approach. The work aims to provide the baselines needed to enable the metal
Hybrid Additive Manufacturing of components with complex geometries where mandatory precision is
required by integrating high accuracy machining operations as post-processing technique
Analysis of self-tapping screw joints in fibre glass reinforced PEI polymer used in the automotive industry
This article presents a study of the joining of polyetherimide (PEI) polymer parts reinforced with fibre glass which has great application in the automotive sector. A simulation model based on the finite element method is proposed. For the modelling of the polymeric material, the three-network viscoplastic (TNV) rheological model was used, with very adequate results and producing a good fit with the experimental data. In addition, a methodology is proposed that allows simplifying a three-dimensional to an axisymmetric model, which implies a notable reduction in computational cost. In addition, the work includes an experimental analysis that evaluates the tightening torque under conditions of assembly repetitiveness, relaxation over time and influence of thermal cycles. These scenarios have a different influence depending on the geometry of the self-tapping screw used. Regarding repetitiveness, it has been verified that PF-30 (CELOspArk (R)) loses 17.16% while in Delta-PT (DELTA PT (R)) it loses up to 41.93% in the tenth repetition. In contrast, in the relaxation over time scenario, the PF-30 loses 13.38% and the Delta-PT loses 17.82%. Finally, regarding the thermal cycles, cooling allows to slightly delay the loss of tightening torque in both screws in a similar way; however, in the heating stage, 36.89% is lost with PF-30 and only 14.66% with Delta-PT. This study represents an improvement in the knowledge of the joining processes of self-tapping screws with polymeric materials of an engineering nature. The simulation model can be easily adapted to other materials and other geometries, and the experimental study offers a vision of the evolution of tightening conditions in realistic operating scenarios
Meeting high precision requirements of additively manufactured components through hybrid manufacturing
A hybrid approach combining the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process and post-processing operations through 5-axis milling was employed to manufacture a Ti6Al4V aerospace component. From the design step, the requirements and needs in all the stages of the Hybrid Additive Manufacturing process were taken into account. A numerical simulation of distortions promoted by residual stresses during the additive process was employed to consider material allowance. The status of the as-built and post-processed component was analysed through scanning and CMM inspection and roughness measurements. The 3D scanned model of the as-built LPBF-ed component was used to understand the distortion behaviour of the component and compared to the numerical simulation. Finally, 5-axis milling operations were conducted in some critical surfaces in order to improve surface quality and dimensional accuracy of the as-built com-ponent. The inspection of the as-built and post-processed component showed the improvement achieved through the proposed hybrid approach. The work aims to provide the baselines needed to enable the metal Hybrid Additive Manufacturing of components with complex geometries where mandatory precision is required by integrating high accuracy machining operations as post-processing technique.(c) 2022 The Author(s). This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/)
Modelizaci贸n de las vibraciones laterales de baja frecuencia en procesos de taladrado.
En esta tesis se desarrolla un modelo para la predicci贸n de la estabilidad del proceso de
taladrado frente a vibraciones laterales de baja frecuencia. El taladrado es una de las operaciones
m谩s frecuentes en el sector aeron谩utico y en el sector de automoci贸n, en los que los requerimientos
de tolerancias y acabados superficiales son exigentes. El taladrado es a menudo una de las 煤ltimas
operaciones en realizarse en el proceso de fabricaci贸n de una pieza, cuando dicha pieza tiene
incorporada la mayor parte de su valor a帽adido. En consecuencia, si uno o varios agujeros no
cumplen con las tolerancias de dimensi贸n, de forma o de integridad superficial, la penalizaci贸n
econ贸mica que supone la rectificaci贸n de dichos errores es muchas veces muy alta y la pieza
puede ser desechada, lo cual, a su vez, implica un alto coste extra. Por ello, es de gran inter茅s
estudiar las posibles fuentes de error en taladrado, que dan lugar a la generaci贸n de agujeros con
errores de forma que no cumplan con los requerimientos deseados.
Una de las principales fuentes de error en taladrado es la aparici贸n de vibraciones durante
el proceso de corte. Las vibraciones que se generan en estas operaciones se pueden clasificar en
dos grupos: (1) vibraciones de chatter (lateral y de torsi贸n-axial), que se excitan a frecuencias
cercanas a la frecuencia natural del sistema y (2) vibraciones laterales de baja frecuencia,
conocidas como whirling en la bibliograf铆a, que se excitan a frecuencias relacionadas con la
frecuencia de giro de la broca. Las vibraciones de chatter provocan la generaci贸n de agujeros en
los que la superficie del fondo es ondulada y una disminuci贸n de la calidad superficial de los
agujeros. En cambio, la aparici贸n de las vibraciones de whirling tiene como consecuencia la
generaci贸n de agujeros con perfiles de forma lobulada.
El presente trabajo se centra en el estudio y modelizaci贸n de las vibraciones laterales de
baja frecuencia (whirling) en taladrado y en la predicci贸n de la estabilidad del proceso frente a
dichas vibraciones de whirling en funci贸n de las condiciones de corte (avance, velocidad de giro
y profundidad de corte). La modelizaci贸n del proceso permite determinar las condiciones de corte
para las cuales no se producen vibraciones de baja frecuencia sin tener que recurrir al m茅todo de
prueba y error.
La modelizaci贸n de las vibraciones de baja frecuencia en taladrado se ha llevado a cabo a
partir de la deducci贸n de la ecuaci贸n del movimiento lateral del centro de la broca y de la
predicci贸n de las fuerzas que act煤an sobre la herramienta. En cuanto a las fuerzas de taladrado
que act煤an sobre la herramienta, en esta tesis se considera la aplicaci贸n simult谩nea de fuerzas en
dos zonas diferentes de la broca: (1) los filos principales y (2) el filo transversal. Las fuerzas
generadas en cada regi贸n se pueden descomponer a su vez en: (1) fuerzas de corte debidas al
arranque de material de la pieza de trabajo y (2) fuerzas de amortiguamiento del proceso.
Para la predicci贸n de las fuerzas de corte aplicadas en los filos principales, se propone un
modelo de fuerzas de corte que tiene en cuenta la variaci贸n de la geometr铆a de la broca y de las
fuerzas de corte espec铆ficas a lo largo de los filos principales. Se lleva a cabo una discretizaci贸n
de la zona del filo involucrada en el corte, que se divide en elementos de corte discretos de igual
tama帽o. En base a las expresiones de los 谩ngulos de corte y teniendo en cuenta la influencia del
efecto regenerativo de la vibraci贸n en la variaci贸n del 谩rea de corte, se predicen las fuerzas de
corte que act煤an sobre cada elemento de la discretizaci贸n empleando un modelo de corte oblicuo.
Con objeto de calcular la fuerza de corte total que se aplica sobre la broca, se lleva a cabo un
sumatorio de las fuerzas de corte aplicadas sobre cada elemento de cada filo de la herramienta.
Con objeto de calcular las fuerzas de amortiguamiento del proceso, en esta tesis se emplea
un modelo que tiene en cuenta la variaci贸n de la geometr铆a de la cara de incidencia a lo largo de
los filos principales. En base a dicha geometr铆a, se calcula el volumen de material de pieza comprimido bajo la cara de incidencia y, a su vez, las fuerzas de amortiguamiento del proceso,
que se consideran proporcionales a dicho volumen.
Para la predicci贸n de las fuerzas actuantes en el filo transversal, se considera tambi茅n la
generaci贸n de fuerzas debidas al corte y al fen贸meno de amortiguamiento del proceso. Para el
c谩lculo de las fuerzas de corte en el filo transversal, se modeliza esta zona de la herramienta como
una cu帽a r铆gida y se emplea un modelo de corte ortogonal. Por su parte, las fuerzas de
amortiguamiento del proceso en el filo transversal se predicen en base a un modelo de la
bibliograf铆a.
La predicci贸n de los l铆mites de estabilidad del proceso de taladrado frente a vibraciones
laterales de baja frecuencia se basa en el an谩lisis de la ecuaci贸n del movimiento lateral de la broca.
En esta tesis, se proponen dos metodolog铆as para llevar a cabo dicho an谩lisis. En primer lugar, se
presenta una nueva metodolog铆a basada en el estudio de la ecuaci贸n del movimiento en el dominio
de la frecuencia. Esta metodolog铆a es aplicable al an谩lisis de la estabilidad del taladrado con
agujero previo. La segunda metodolog铆a se basa en la teor铆a de semi-discretizaci贸n temporal de
ecuaciones diferenciales con retardo. Esta metodolog铆a es aplicable al estudio de la estabilidad en
los casos de taladrado enterizo y con agujero previo. Las dos metodolog铆as propuestas permiten
predecir la aparici贸n de vibraciones de baja frecuencia en funci贸n de las condiciones de corte
(avance, velocidad de giro y profundidad de corte).
Finalmente, la modelizaci贸n de las vibraciones laterales de baja frecuencia se ha validado
experimentalmente a trav茅s de ensayos de taladrado enterizo y con agujero previo. En base a la
comparaci贸n entre los resultados obtenidos en dichos ensayos y las predicciones del modelo
propuesto, se puede concluir que el modelo predice de forma adecuada la aparici贸n de vibraciones
de whirling en funci贸n de las condiciones de corte, as铆 como las frecuencias a las que se excitan
dichas vibraciones.In this thesis, a model to predict the stability of drilling process against low-frequency
lateral vibrations is developed. Drilling is one of the most common machining operations in the
aerospace and automotive industries, in which tough tolerances and surface finish are required.
Drilling is usually one of the last operations conducted in the manufacturing process of a
workpiece. Hence, it is usually accomplished once that the part has a high added value.
Consequently, if one or more holes do not fulfill the dimension, shape or surface integrity
requirements, the economic cost of rectifying errors in drilling can be very high. In addition, the
part can also be thrown away, which in turn implies a high extra cost. Therefore, the study of
mechanisms and conditions that may cause the appearance of errors during drilling and lead to
the formation of holes that are out of tolerance is highly important.
One of the main sources of error formation during drilling is related to vibration
appearance. During drilling operations, two main types of vibration can occur: (1) chatter
vibrations, that are excited at frequencies near the natural frequency of the system and (2) lowfrequency
vibrations, known as whirling in the literature, in which excited frequency values are
related to the rotation frequency of the tool. Chatter vibrations lead to the formation of holes with
undulated bottom surface, whereas whirling vibration appearance during drilling leads to the
generation of lobed-shape holes.
The present work focuses on the study and modeling of low-frequency lateral vibrations
(whirling) in drilling and on the process stability prediction against those whirling vibrations as
function of cutting conditions (feed, rotation speed and depth of cut). Process modeling allows
the determination of cutting conditions for which no whirling vibrations appear, so that the errortrial
method can be avoided.
Low-frequency lateral vibration modeling in drilling is based on the development of the
lateral motion equation of the drill center and on the prediction of the forces that act on the tool.
With regard to the drilling forces that act on the drill, in this thesis it is assumed that during drilling
operation forces arise in two different regions of the drill: (1) main cutting edge region and (2)
chisel edge region. Furthermore, forces generated along each region are decomposed into: (1)
cutting forces, that are related to the material removal process and (2) process damping forces.
In order to predict cutting forces that arise at the main cutting edges, a model is proposed
that considers the drill geometry and specific cutting force variation along the main cutting edges.
The cutting edge section involved in the cutting is divided into discrete elements, each of them
having the same size. In order to predict cutting forces, an oblique cutting force model is applied
on each discrete element. The model considers both the cutting angle equations and the influence
of the regenerative effect of the vibration on the cutting area variation. So as to obtain the overall
cutting force acting on the main cutting edges, cutting forces acting at each element contained in
each cutting edge must be added.
With the aim of predicting process damping forces, in this thesis, a model is developed that
considers clearance face geometry variation along the main cutting edges. Based on this geometry,
the volume of workpiece material that is compressed under the clearance face of the drill is
calculated. In turn process damping forces, that are assumed to be proportional to the compressed
material volume, are predicted.
According to the forces that arise in the chisel edge region, both cutting and process
damping forces are assumed to appear in this region during drilling. For the prediction of cutting
forces on the chisel edge, this region is modelled as a rigid wedge and an orthogonal cutting model
is employed. For the calculation of process damping forces in the chisel edge a model from the
literature is employed.
The prediction of low-frequency lateral vibrations in drilling is based on the analysis of the
lateral motion equation of the drill. In this thesis, two methodologies are proposed to accomplish
the mentioned analysis. Firstly, a new methodology is presented that is based on a frequency
domain analysis of the motion equation. This methodology can be applied for the analysis of the
stability of drilling with pilot hole. The second methodology is based on the semi-discretization
theory of delayed differential equations. This methodology can be applied for the stability
prediction of drilling with and without pilot hole. Both methodologies allow the prediction of
low-frequency lateral vibration in drilling process as function of cutting conditions (feed, rotation
speed and depth of cut).
Finally, low-frequency lateral vibration modeling is experimentally validated by means of
drilling tests with and without pilot hole. In comparing the results obtained in the experimental
tests and the model predictions, it can be concluded that the model is able to predict the
appearance of low-frequency lateral vibrations as function of cutting conditions. In addition, the
proposed model can also predict the frequencies at which those vibrations are excited
Modelizaci贸n de las vibraciones laterales de baja frecuencia en procesos de taladrado.
En esta tesis se desarrolla un modelo para la predicci贸n de la estabilidad del proceso de
taladrado frente a vibraciones laterales de baja frecuencia. El taladrado es una de las operaciones
m谩s frecuentes en el sector aeron谩utico y en el sector de automoci贸n, en los que los requerimientos
de tolerancias y acabados superficiales son exigentes. El taladrado es a menudo una de las 煤ltimas
operaciones en realizarse en el proceso de fabricaci贸n de una pieza, cuando dicha pieza tiene
incorporada la mayor parte de su valor a帽adido. En consecuencia, si uno o varios agujeros no
cumplen con las tolerancias de dimensi贸n, de forma o de integridad superficial, la penalizaci贸n
econ贸mica que supone la rectificaci贸n de dichos errores es muchas veces muy alta y la pieza
puede ser desechada, lo cual, a su vez, implica un alto coste extra. Por ello, es de gran inter茅s
estudiar las posibles fuentes de error en taladrado, que dan lugar a la generaci贸n de agujeros con
errores de forma que no cumplan con los requerimientos deseados.
Una de las principales fuentes de error en taladrado es la aparici贸n de vibraciones durante
el proceso de corte. Las vibraciones que se generan en estas operaciones se pueden clasificar en
dos grupos: (1) vibraciones de chatter (lateral y de torsi贸n-axial), que se excitan a frecuencias
cercanas a la frecuencia natural del sistema y (2) vibraciones laterales de baja frecuencia,
conocidas como whirling en la bibliograf铆a, que se excitan a frecuencias relacionadas con la
frecuencia de giro de la broca. Las vibraciones de chatter provocan la generaci贸n de agujeros en
los que la superficie del fondo es ondulada y una disminuci贸n de la calidad superficial de los
agujeros. En cambio, la aparici贸n de las vibraciones de whirling tiene como consecuencia la
generaci贸n de agujeros con perfiles de forma lobulada.
El presente trabajo se centra en el estudio y modelizaci贸n de las vibraciones laterales de
baja frecuencia (whirling) en taladrado y en la predicci贸n de la estabilidad del proceso frente a
dichas vibraciones de whirling en funci贸n de las condiciones de corte (avance, velocidad de giro
y profundidad de corte). La modelizaci贸n del proceso permite determinar las condiciones de corte
para las cuales no se producen vibraciones de baja frecuencia sin tener que recurrir al m茅todo de
prueba y error.
La modelizaci贸n de las vibraciones de baja frecuencia en taladrado se ha llevado a cabo a
partir de la deducci贸n de la ecuaci贸n del movimiento lateral del centro de la broca y de la
predicci贸n de las fuerzas que act煤an sobre la herramienta. En cuanto a las fuerzas de taladrado
que act煤an sobre la herramienta, en esta tesis se considera la aplicaci贸n simult谩nea de fuerzas en
dos zonas diferentes de la broca: (1) los filos principales y (2) el filo transversal. Las fuerzas
generadas en cada regi贸n se pueden descomponer a su vez en: (1) fuerzas de corte debidas al
arranque de material de la pieza de trabajo y (2) fuerzas de amortiguamiento del proceso.
Para la predicci贸n de las fuerzas de corte aplicadas en los filos principales, se propone un
modelo de fuerzas de corte que tiene en cuenta la variaci贸n de la geometr铆a de la broca y de las
fuerzas de corte espec铆ficas a lo largo de los filos principales. Se lleva a cabo una discretizaci贸n
de la zona del filo involucrada en el corte, que se divide en elementos de corte discretos de igual
tama帽o. En base a las expresiones de los 谩ngulos de corte y teniendo en cuenta la influencia del
efecto regenerativo de la vibraci贸n en la variaci贸n del 谩rea de corte, se predicen las fuerzas de
corte que act煤an sobre cada elemento de la discretizaci贸n empleando un modelo de corte oblicuo.
Con objeto de calcular la fuerza de corte total que se aplica sobre la broca, se lleva a cabo un
sumatorio de las fuerzas de corte aplicadas sobre cada elemento de cada filo de la herramienta.
Con objeto de calcular las fuerzas de amortiguamiento del proceso, en esta tesis se emplea
un modelo que tiene en cuenta la variaci贸n de la geometr铆a de la cara de incidencia a lo largo de
los filos principales. En base a dicha geometr铆a, se calcula el volumen de material de pieza comprimido bajo la cara de incidencia y, a su vez, las fuerzas de amortiguamiento del proceso,
que se consideran proporcionales a dicho volumen.
Para la predicci贸n de las fuerzas actuantes en el filo transversal, se considera tambi茅n la
generaci贸n de fuerzas debidas al corte y al fen贸meno de amortiguamiento del proceso. Para el
c谩lculo de las fuerzas de corte en el filo transversal, se modeliza esta zona de la herramienta como
una cu帽a r铆gida y se emplea un modelo de corte ortogonal. Por su parte, las fuerzas de
amortiguamiento del proceso en el filo transversal se predicen en base a un modelo de la
bibliograf铆a.
La predicci贸n de los l铆mites de estabilidad del proceso de taladrado frente a vibraciones
laterales de baja frecuencia se basa en el an谩lisis de la ecuaci贸n del movimiento lateral de la broca.
En esta tesis, se proponen dos metodolog铆as para llevar a cabo dicho an谩lisis. En primer lugar, se
presenta una nueva metodolog铆a basada en el estudio de la ecuaci贸n del movimiento en el dominio
de la frecuencia. Esta metodolog铆a es aplicable al an谩lisis de la estabilidad del taladrado con
agujero previo. La segunda metodolog铆a se basa en la teor铆a de semi-discretizaci贸n temporal de
ecuaciones diferenciales con retardo. Esta metodolog铆a es aplicable al estudio de la estabilidad en
los casos de taladrado enterizo y con agujero previo. Las dos metodolog铆as propuestas permiten
predecir la aparici贸n de vibraciones de baja frecuencia en funci贸n de las condiciones de corte
(avance, velocidad de giro y profundidad de corte).
Finalmente, la modelizaci贸n de las vibraciones laterales de baja frecuencia se ha validado
experimentalmente a trav茅s de ensayos de taladrado enterizo y con agujero previo. En base a la
comparaci贸n entre los resultados obtenidos en dichos ensayos y las predicciones del modelo
propuesto, se puede concluir que el modelo predice de forma adecuada la aparici贸n de vibraciones
de whirling en funci贸n de las condiciones de corte, as铆 como las frecuencias a las que se excitan
dichas vibraciones.In this thesis, a model to predict the stability of drilling process against low-frequency
lateral vibrations is developed. Drilling is one of the most common machining operations in the
aerospace and automotive industries, in which tough tolerances and surface finish are required.
Drilling is usually one of the last operations conducted in the manufacturing process of a
workpiece. Hence, it is usually accomplished once that the part has a high added value.
Consequently, if one or more holes do not fulfill the dimension, shape or surface integrity
requirements, the economic cost of rectifying errors in drilling can be very high. In addition, the
part can also be thrown away, which in turn implies a high extra cost. Therefore, the study of
mechanisms and conditions that may cause the appearance of errors during drilling and lead to
the formation of holes that are out of tolerance is highly important.
One of the main sources of error formation during drilling is related to vibration
appearance. During drilling operations, two main types of vibration can occur: (1) chatter
vibrations, that are excited at frequencies near the natural frequency of the system and (2) lowfrequency
vibrations, known as whirling in the literature, in which excited frequency values are
related to the rotation frequency of the tool. Chatter vibrations lead to the formation of holes with
undulated bottom surface, whereas whirling vibration appearance during drilling leads to the
generation of lobed-shape holes.
The present work focuses on the study and modeling of low-frequency lateral vibrations
(whirling) in drilling and on the process stability prediction against those whirling vibrations as
function of cutting conditions (feed, rotation speed and depth of cut). Process modeling allows
the determination of cutting conditions for which no whirling vibrations appear, so that the errortrial
method can be avoided.
Low-frequency lateral vibration modeling in drilling is based on the development of the
lateral motion equation of the drill center and on the prediction of the forces that act on the tool.
With regard to the drilling forces that act on the drill, in this thesis it is assumed that during drilling
operation forces arise in two different regions of the drill: (1) main cutting edge region and (2)
chisel edge region. Furthermore, forces generated along each region are decomposed into: (1)
cutting forces, that are related to the material removal process and (2) process damping forces.
In order to predict cutting forces that arise at the main cutting edges, a model is proposed
that considers the drill geometry and specific cutting force variation along the main cutting edges.
The cutting edge section involved in the cutting is divided into discrete elements, each of them
having the same size. In order to predict cutting forces, an oblique cutting force model is applied
on each discrete element. The model considers both the cutting angle equations and the influence
of the regenerative effect of the vibration on the cutting area variation. So as to obtain the overall
cutting force acting on the main cutting edges, cutting forces acting at each element contained in
each cutting edge must be added.
With the aim of predicting process damping forces, in this thesis, a model is developed that
considers clearance face geometry variation along the main cutting edges. Based on this geometry,
the volume of workpiece material that is compressed under the clearance face of the drill is
calculated. In turn process damping forces, that are assumed to be proportional to the compressed
material volume, are predicted.
According to the forces that arise in the chisel edge region, both cutting and process
damping forces are assumed to appear in this region during drilling. For the prediction of cutting
forces on the chisel edge, this region is modelled as a rigid wedge and an orthogonal cutting model
is employed. For the calculation of process damping forces in the chisel edge a model from the
literature is employed.
The prediction of low-frequency lateral vibrations in drilling is based on the analysis of the
lateral motion equation of the drill. In this thesis, two methodologies are proposed to accomplish
the mentioned analysis. Firstly, a new methodology is presented that is based on a frequency
domain analysis of the motion equation. This methodology can be applied for the analysis of the
stability of drilling with pilot hole. The second methodology is based on the semi-discretization
theory of delayed differential equations. This methodology can be applied for the stability
prediction of drilling with and without pilot hole. Both methodologies allow the prediction of
low-frequency lateral vibration in drilling process as function of cutting conditions (feed, rotation
speed and depth of cut).
Finally, low-frequency lateral vibration modeling is experimentally validated by means of
drilling tests with and without pilot hole. In comparing the results obtained in the experimental
tests and the model predictions, it can be concluded that the model is able to predict the
appearance of low-frequency lateral vibrations as function of cutting conditions. In addition, the
proposed model can also predict the frequencies at which those vibrations are excited
Nozzle Designs in Powder-Based Direct Laser Deposition: A Review
Laser-based Direct Energy Deposition (L-DED) is one of the most commonly employed metal additive manufacturing technologies. In L-DED, a laser beam is employed as a heat source to melt the metal powder that is deposited on a substrate layer by layer for the generation of a desired component. The powder is commonly fed through a nozzle into the molten pool by means of a carrier gas and therefore, a nozzle design that ensures optimal deposition of the material is of critical importance. Additionally, its design also affects the powder and gas flows that arise in the nozzle and during the deposition. This, in turn will affect the characteristics of the generated clad and the performance of the whole deposition. Therefore, an optimization of deposition nozzle geometry can be as important as the controlling of deposition process parameters in order to obtain best component qualities. In this context, the present review work is aimed at analysing the different nozzle designs employed in powder-based L-DED processes and the influence of different geometrical features and configurations on the resulting powder and gas flows. Concretely, the main characteristics of each design, their advantages and their possible shortcomings are analysed in detail. Additionally, a review of most relevant numerical models employed during the development of new and optimised nozzle designs are also addressed
Analysis of self-tapping screw joints in fibre glass reinforced PEI polymer used in the automotive industry
This article presents a study of the joining of polyetherimide (PEI) polymer parts reinforced with fibre glass which has great application in the automotive sector. A simulation model based on the finite element method is proposed. For the modelling of the polymeric material, the three-network viscoplastic (TNV) rheological model was used, with very adequate results and producing a good fit with the experimental data. In addition, a methodology is proposed that allows simplifying a three-dimensional to an axisymmetric model, which implies a notable reduction in computational cost. In addition, the work includes an experimental analysis that evaluates the tightening torque under conditions of assembly repetitiveness, relaxation over time and influence of thermal cycles. These scenarios have a different influence depending on the geometry of the self-tapping screw used. Regarding repetitiveness, it has been verified that PF-30 (CELOspArk (R)) loses 17.16% while in Delta-PT (DELTA PT (R)) it loses up to 41.93% in the tenth repetition. In contrast, in the relaxation over time scenario, the PF-30 loses 13.38% and the Delta-PT loses 17.82%. Finally, regarding the thermal cycles, cooling allows to slightly delay the loss of tightening torque in both screws in a similar way; however, in the heating stage, 36.89% is lost with PF-30 and only 14.66% with Delta-PT. This study represents an improvement in the knowledge of the joining processes of self-tapping screws with polymeric materials of an engineering nature. The simulation model can be easily adapted to other materials and other geometries, and the experimental study offers a vision of the evolution of tightening conditions in realistic operating scenarios
A numerical model for predicting powder characteristics in LMD considering particle interaction
In this work, a numerical model is proposed to analyze the influence of particle-particle interaction in laser directed energy deposition or LMD (laser metal deposition) of CM247 Ni-based superalloy. The model is based on the analysis of contact between particles and the potential agglomeration of powder to predict powder conditions at the nozzle exit. Simulation results were experimentally validated and a good agreement was observed. At the nozzle exit mainly large particles (>100 mu m) are found and small ones (<10 m) tend to flow away from this region. This was also observed in the experimental PSD. Additionally, based on the relative velocity of particles, simulations are able to predict the formation of dents. In comparing virgin powder PSD and the one at the nozzle exit, it was observed that largest particles are collected at the exit. In order to explain this phenomena, particle agglomeration was analysed numerically. It was seen that small particles tend to adhere to the big ones due to their higher adhesive forces, which would explain the change in PSD. (c) 2024 The Society of Powder Technology Japan. Published by Elsevier BV and The Society of Powder Technology Japan. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Meeting high precision requirements of additively manufactured components through hybrid manufacturing
A hybrid approach combining the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process and post-processing operations
through 5-axis milling was employed to manufacture a Ti6Al4V aerospace component. From the design
step, the requirements and needs in all the stages of the Hybrid Additive Manufacturing process were taken
into account. A numerical simulation of distortions promoted by residual stresses during the additive
process was employed to consider material allowance. The status of the as-built and post-processed
component was analysed through scanning and CMM inspection and roughness measurements. The 3D
scanned model of the as-built LPBF-ed component was used to understand the distortion behaviour of the
component and compared to the numerical simulation. Finally, 5-axis milling operations were conducted in
some critical surfaces in order to improve surface quality and dimensional accuracy of the as-built com-
ponent. The inspection of the as-built and post-processed component showed the improvement achieved
through the proposed hybrid approach. The work aims to provide the baselines needed to enable the metal
Hybrid Additive Manufacturing of components with complex geometries where mandatory precision is
required by integrating high accuracy machining operations as post-processing technique
Meeting high precision requirements of additively manufactured components through hybrid manufacturing
A hybrid approach combining the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process and post-processing operations through 5-axis milling was employed to manufacture a Ti6Al4V aerospace component. From the design step, the requirements and needs in all the stages of the Hybrid Additive Manufacturing process were taken into account. A numerical simulation of distortions promoted by residual stresses during the additive process was employed to consider material allowance. The status of the as-built and post-processed component was analysed through scanning and CMM inspection and roughness measurements. The 3D scanned model of the as-built LPBF-ed component was used to understand the distortion behaviour of the component and compared to the numerical simulation. Finally, 5-axis milling operations were conducted in some critical surfaces in order to improve surface quality and dimensional accuracy of the as-built com-ponent. The inspection of the as-built and post-processed component showed the improvement achieved through the proposed hybrid approach. The work aims to provide the baselines needed to enable the metal Hybrid Additive Manufacturing of components with complex geometries where mandatory precision is required by integrating high accuracy machining operations as post-processing technique.(c) 2022 The Author(s). This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/)