Gender Stereotyping of Emotions in Small Businesses and Entrepreneurial Ventures

This study discusses gender-emotion stereotyping and its effects on small businesses and entrepreneurial ventures and their overall strategic management. Men and women are expected to express different types of emotion in different ways according to their gender (Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008; Brescoll, 2016; Durik et al., 2006; Fabes & Martin, 1991). Stereotypes are applied by individuals to others and themselves to govern and judge behavior (Plant et al., 2000). Those who act outside of societal expectations are subject to backlash by their peers, such as less respect and poor performance evaluations, with consequences on day-to-day business operations (Winkel & Ragins, 2017). The present study examines gender-emotion stereotyping’s effects on individuals and their personalities in the workplace, specifically within small businesses and entrepreneurial ventures. Through the proposed collection and analysis of secondary and primary data as well as discussion of implementing proposed solutions, this paper suggests methods and techniques to reduce gender-emotion stereotyping’s adverse effects on businesses and individuals and their planned and unplanned outcomes

A Change Leadership and Management Research Discussion and Analysis on the Religiosity and Spirituality in Philosophical Organizations: The Sustainability Case of Religious Freedom and the Satanic Temple

Organizations and Governments need to critically experience the change management processes to understand and build planned organizational change models. Throughout these processes, religiosity and spirituality play a pivotal role in broadening our scientific understanding about the key philosophies of sustainable change leadership. This study builds onto these arguments while presenting a strong case of religious liberties, especially through the lens of The Satanic Temple (TST) alongside contextualizing the application of change. The manuscript successfully delineated the process of change management and philosophical sustainability by conducting large scale literature reviews and theoretical analyses characterized by micro and macro understandings of a variety of contextual variables and research ideas. Broadly, these included exploring the boundaries of political pressures and human rights, investigating the different perspectives of engines of change in society, bridging the gaps between political and socio-legal viewpoints of religiosity and spirituality, analyzing key roles played by TST in business and society, considering multiple outlooks of effective change communication in organizations and governments, and eventually examining the sustainability dimensions of effective change management

The Birth and Death of Small Businesses and Entrepreneurial Ventures: A Critical Review of Key Variables & Research Agenda

According to the United States Small Business Administration (SBA), small business owners represent 99.9% of all U.S. firms and employ 48% of the private sector employees, which accounts for over 40% of the U.S. private sector payroll. Following global suit, the focus in the United States on entrepreneurship has been on the rise over the last decade and is a major source of employment and revenue, as well as spurring new innovation (Leutner et al., 2014, America’s Small Business Development Center [ASBDC], 2020; U.S. Small Business Administration [SBA], 2020). In order to get a full picture of entrepreneurship in the United States, research and many studies have been conducted to try to understand the accountability of strategic management and the tactical reasoning of entrepreneurs (Ciavarella et al., 2004; Hurtz & Donovan, 2000; Leutner et al., 2014; Mitchell et al., 2007; Owens, 2003; Rauch & Frese, 2000; Staniewski & Awruk, 2019). While there are many definitions of entrepreneurship, a commonly accepted definition is the behavior that is tied to the generation of value in innovative tendencies, techniques, and actions. Strategic management helps an organization, small business, or new venture to get equipped with the right management tools, anticipate changes, and direct the organizational activities along the right path as part of a decision-making process. The objective of this critical review and research agenda paper is to better understand the role strategic management plays in the birth and death of small businesses and new ventures. Further, to explore if certain personality traits of individuals are responsible for promoting such actions, more than others. The Theory of Planned Behavior is considered from a theoretical background perspective to view the lens of accountability of this body of research. Specifically, as a discipline, can strategic management likely be considered accountable for the birth and death of organizations, small businesses, and new ventures? Are certain personality traits of individuals more responsible for promoting such actions than others

No Meeting of the Minds? Exploring CIO and Analyst Strategic Mental Models

Strategic IT alignment is seen in “an overwhelming body of literature” (Sabherwal, Sabherwal, Havakhor, & Steelman, 2019, p. 454) as the state of congruence between an organization’s IT strategy and the organizations business strategies. Strategy is the plan for getting from where you or your organization is to where it wants to be (Webb, 2019). Generally, organization management has the task of coming up with the strategy and the workers have the task of implementing that strategy. These two groups should agree on the current situation, what the strategy is, how to implement it, and the ultimate goals. When the two groups do not agree, implementing the strategy is difficult at best and impossible at worst. This paper explores how the mental models (Johnson-Laird, 2010) an organization’s strategy of IT personnel transition in the minds of management (Chief Information Officers) and workers (analysts). Revealed causal mapping brings these mental models to light so they can be compared, and where the mental models differ, action can be taken so management and workers are all on the same page

Comparative Profiling of Female and Male Entrepreneurship Using Empirical Evidence: A Meta-Analysis Examining the Relationships Between Gender, Personality Profiles, Ethics, and Successes of Entrepreneurs and Startups

Are there any noticeable differences among entrepreneurs who founded small businesses and their successes or failures based on their ethical intentions, gender, personality profiles, and leadership styles? Are female entrepreneurs who founded small businesses more likely to succeed than their male counterparts? Do personality characteristics impact decisions and intentions of an individual to become an entrepreneur? Do female entrepreneurs differ from male entrepreneurs in regard to the big five personality attributes? This meta-analysis includes evidentiary support from over 50 prior research articles as well as some qualitative analyses further analyzing over twenty research articles to gain fresh insights from entrepreneurs around the world regarding their entrepreneurial successes and failures of small business startups. It concludes that female entrepreneurs are more likely to have ethical intentions in general across a variety of geographies and landscapes, and, in general, entrepreneurs with ethical intentions are more likely to succeed. The second conclusion is that personality constructs play an essential role in both the decision to become an entrepreneur and in overall entrepreneurial performance

Indigenous Rural Entrepreneurialism and Social Venturing Within Native Alaskan and Canadian Aboriginal Communities: An Empirical Analysis of Critical Success Factors and Socio-Economic Benefits of Alaska Native Corporations

This research examines the correlation between Alaskan Native Corporations’ corporate social responsibility investment strategies and their impact on effectively creating entrepreneurial opportunities for Alaskan Native communities. Our analysis begins by examining factors affecting the alignment of Alaska Native Corporation values with indigenous cultural values (Anders & Anders, 1987). It then builds off further from previous research into social entrepreneurship and indigenous people (Curry, Donker, & Michel, 2016). We reviewed existing literature addressing connections between indigenous culture and entrepreneurial opportunities (Bardy, Drew, & Kennedy, 2011) and then adapted Donker, et. al.’s (2008) research model for assessing the relationship between corporate values and firm performance to establish a method for data collection and analysis. We hypothesize that there is a significantly positive and strong correlation between economic community development and corporate financial performance when Alaska Native cultural values are integrated into Alaska Native Corporations, when gender diversity is promoted in leadership roles within the corporations and within entrepreneurial businesses within Alaska Native communities, and when serious reasonable efforts are made to promote social well-being, economic, and educational development. In our assessment of cultural values and their impact on firm performance in Alaska Native Corporations, we used H. Donker, et. al.’s (2008) research model for assessing the relationship between corporate values and firm performance to provide a method for data collection and analysis. We also examined publicly available data regarding socio-economic factors to gauge labor participation including unemployment rates, high school Indigenous Rural Entrepreneurialism and Social Venturing in Alaska graduation rates, and student performance. This data was correlated with Alaska Native Corporation community investment programs to evaluate connections and test our hypothesis. We examined the gender diversity of Alaska Native Corporations Board of Directors to identify any impacts on firm performance, specifically how the gender diversity of corporate executive boards impacts investments in communities. Our data sample focused on the twelve regional Alaska Native Corporations, their respective non-profit foundations, and their affiliated communities

THINK ENTREPRENEUR – THINK MALE: UNFOLDING THE GENDERED CHARACTERIZATION OF REQUISITE MANAGERIAL, LEADERSHIP, AND ENTREPRENEURIAL TRAITS

Are men and women equally likely to be perceived by people to possess similar requisite characteristics in comparable yet diverse occupations within management, leadership, and entrepreneurship? Because modern workplaces continue to be impacted by the persistence of varying perceptions of men and women about requisite attributes of successful people in several organizational roles, the concept of gender bias and occupational stereotypes has warranted the attention of theoreticians, scholars, and practitioners to a large extent (Koch, D’Mello, & Sackett, 2015; Kuwabara & Thébaud, 2017; Pinker, 2003; Pinker & Spelke, 2005). Although empirical evidence clearly indicates that gender inequalities in the workplace can have a significant effect on peoples’ perceptions about different characteristics of individuals in general and in specific organizational roles, there is a paucity of research examining these perceptions in a variety of leadership positions. Previous literature has investigated the gendered construction and re-construction of these professions but only to a limited extent (Gupta, Turban, Wasti, & Sikdar, 2009; Heilman, 2001, 2012; Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs, & Tamkins, 2004; Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011; Kuwabara & Thébaud, 2017; Ryan, Haslam, Hersby, & Bongiorno, 2011; Schein, 1973, 1975, 2001). However, research in years past has not yet examined the full range of industry and entrepreneurial contexts that may create gender typecasting of roles. By extension, the current study focuses on how the gender-differentiated perceptions of men and women influenced the requisite characteristics of successful professional personnel in various managerial, leadership, and entrepreneurial positions. Specifically, given that these professions are influenced by gender-role expectations and stereotypes, this empirical investigation drew from role congruity theory of prejudice (Eagly & Karau, 2002) to examine the relative degree of perceived overlap between the traits associated with specific roles in management, leadership, and entrepreneurship with the traits commonly associated with men and women in general. Primary data were obtained from a diverse sample of 600 (12 x 50) working adults in the United States (N = 600, 300 women, 300 men) between the ages of 21 and 65. This was accomplished using an online survey designed via Qualtrics and administered through Amazon’s MTurk, from the lens of the classic think manager-think male (TMTM) research paradigm (Schein, 1973, 1975, 2001). The instrument used for data collection was the 92-item Schein Descriptive Index (SDI), which was used to describe sex role stereotypes and perceived requisite characteristics of twelve distinct target groups. The results of this study indicate that the perceived requisite traits of successful leaders and entrepreneurs are construed in predominantly masculine terms. These findings support and further inform the nature, existence, significance, and persistence of the “think manager-think male stereotype effect” (TMTM effect) and the “glass ceiling phenomenon” across a variety of managerial, leadership, and entrepreneurial roles, contexts, and industries. The TMTM effect was stronger among high tech entrepreneurs, CEOs, and entrepreneurs in general, whereas it was lessened for entrepreneurs in educational and health care roles, as well as for middle managers. Additionally, consistent with prior research, TMTM effects were generally either more likely to occur, or were stronger in magnitude among male raters than among female raters. These results largely support role congruity theory of gender differences in management and leadership that indicate incongruity of female gender stereotypes in general with stereotypes about high-status and prominent occupational roles in various organizations (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Specifically, the perceived trait overlap was noted to generally be stronger between men in general and successful leaders in various roles than that between women in general and successful leaders in various similar roles. The findings of the current study are expected to be valuable for those seeking to encourage opportunity regardless of candidate gender in management, entrepreneurship, and leadership, as well as for those promoting the role of women’s advancement in these professions. The study’s results have both theoretical and practical implications. Understanding these perceptions can have a significant impact on the gender biases prevalent in society, in organizations, and even across the specific entrepreneurial contexts and industries investigated within the current study. In today’s super-competitive business environment, firms must appreciate the importance of fostering equal opportunity, avoiding gender biases, and facilitating racial and ethnic diversity

Managing Workplace Ethical Dilemmas, Perceptual Ethical Leadership, Accountability, and Management Outcomes: A Critical Review and Future Directions

The inquiry of ethical dilemmas and moral predicaments continues to be a significant problem for managers in most workplace environments (Brown & Trevino, 2006). Managers oftentimes find themselves in difficult situations where they must make decisions that uphold organizational ethics, policies, and honor their morality (Brown & Trevino, 2006; Trevino, 2018; Verschoor, 2018). Mostly, employee actions put managers in these compromising situations, where they may be required to make some trying ethical decisions. Considering these perspectives, this study discusses a variety of research on employee actions and other factors that may pose ethical dilemmas to managers. The study also investigates research done by other scholars about management ethical dilemmas and tries to establish the research gaps on what researchers might not have not wholly accomplished in the past. The study proposes to take a qualitative approach to investigate what managers have been doing in the past to address the question of what they must do in the future when they encounter real-world ethical quandaries