Regulation of Mitochondrial Antiviral Signaling Pathways

Mitochondrial antiviral immunity involves the detection of viral RNA by intracellular pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) belonging to the RIG-I-like helicase family. The convergence of these and other signaling molecules to the outer mitochondrial membrane results in the rapid induction of antiviral cytokines including type-1 interferon. Here, we discuss recent studies describing new molecules implicated in the regulation of this antiviral response

Inhibition of IFN-γ Signaling by an Epstein-Barr Virus Immediate-Early Protein

AbstractViruses have evolved elaborate mechanisms to target many aspects of the host's immune response. The cytokine IFN-γ plays a central role in resistance of the host to infection via direct antiviral effects as well as modulation of the immune response. In this study, we demonstrate that the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) immediate-early protein, BZLF1, inhibits the IFN-γ signaling pathway. BZLF1 decreases the ability of IFN-γ to activate a variety of important downstream target genes, such as IRF-1, p48, and CIITA, and prevents IFN-γ-induced class II MHC surface expression. Additionally, BZLF1 inhibits IFN-γ-induced STAT1 tyrosine phosphorylation and nuclear translocation. Finally, we demonstrate that BZLF1 decreases expression of the IFN-γ receptor, suggesting a mechanism by which EBV may escape antiviral immune responses during primary infection

Mechanisms of NOD-like Receptor-Associated Inflammasome Activation

A major function of a subfamily of NLR (nucleotide-binding domain, leucine rich repeat containing or NOD-like receptor) proteins is in inflammasome activation, which has been implicated in a multitude of disease models and human diseases. This work will highlight key progress in understanding the mechanisms which activates the best studied NLRs (NLRP3, NLRC4, NAIP and NLRP1) and in uncovering new inflammasome NLRs

Inflammasomes and Metabolic Disorders: Old Genes in Modern Diseases

Modern medical and hygienic practices have greatly improved human health and longevity; however, increased human lifespan occurs concomitantly with the emergence of metabolic and age-related diseases. Studies over the past decade have strongly linked host inflammatory responses to the etiology of several metabolic diseases including atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes (T2D), obesity and gout. A common immunological factor to these diseases is the activation of the inflammasome and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines that promote disease progression. Here we review the molecular mechanism(s) of inflammasome activation in response to metabolic damage associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and discuss potential targets for therapeutic intervention

Inflammasomes: mechanism of action, role in disease and therapeutics

The inflammasomes are innate immune system receptors/sensors that regulate the activation of caspase-1 and induce inflammation in response to infectious microbes and molecules derived from host proteins. It has been implicated in a host of inflammatory disorders. Recent developments have greatly enhanced our understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which different inflammasomes are activated. Additionally, increasing evidence in mouse models, supported by human data, strongly implicates an involvement of the inflammasome in the initiation or progression of diseases with a high impact on public health such as metabolic disorders and neurodegenerative diseases. Finally, recent developments pointing toward promising therapeutics that target inflammasome activity in inflammatory diseases have been reported. This review will focus on these three areas of inflammasome research

Mechanisms of NOD-like Receptor-Associated Inflammasome Activation

A major function of a subfamily of NLR (nucleotide-binding domain, leucine rich repeat containing or NOD-like receptor) proteins is in inflammasome activation, which has been implicated in a multitude of disease models and human diseases. This work will highlight key progress in understanding the mechanisms which activates the best studied NLRs (NLRP3, NLRC4, NAIP and NLRP1) and in uncovering new inflammasome NLRs

The Inflammasome NLRs in Immunity, Inflammation, and Associated Diseases

Inflammasome activation leads to caspase-1 activation, which causes the maturation cleavage of pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18. A subgroup of the NLR (nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat containing) proteins are key mediators of the inflammasome. Studies of gene-deficient mice and cells have implicated NLR inflammasomes in a host of responses to a wide range of microbial pathogens, inflammatory diseases, cancer, and metabolic and autoimmune disorders. Determining exactly how the inflammasome is activated in these diseases and disease models remains a challenge. This review presents and integrates recent progress in the field

Cross-regulation between the IL-1β/IL-18 processing inflammasome and other inflammatory cytokines

The inflammasome-forming NLRs are well characterized members of a protein complex mediating the activation of caspase-1 and the cleavage of pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18 into their active, secreted forms. New data suggest that components of the inflammasome cascade may have roles in influencing inflammasome-independent pathways of cytokine production. These influences on other immune cytokine pathways are complemented by data suggesting that non-inflammasome cytokines can influence the activation of the inflammasome, either directly or by influencing transcription of inflammasome components. The crosstalk between these cytokine cascades may lead to increased abilities for the cell to respond to diverse pathogen threats

NLR members NLRC4 and NLRP3 mediate sterile inflammasome activation in microglia and astrocytes

Inflammation in the brain accompanies several high-impact neurological diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS), stroke, and Alzheimer’s disease. Neuroinflammation is sterile, as damage-associated molecular patterns rather than microbial pathogens elicit the response. The inflammasome, which leads to caspase-1 activation, is implicated in neuroinflammation. In this study, we reveal that lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), a molecule associated with neurodegeneration and demyelination, elicits NLRP3 and NLRC4 inflammasome activation in microglia and astrocytes, which are central players in neuroinflammation. LPC-activated inflammasome also requires ASC (apoptotic speck containing protein with a CARD), caspase-1, cathepsin-mediated degradation, calcium mobilization, and potassium efflux but not caspase-11. To study the physiological relevance, Nlrc4 −/− and Nlrp3 −/− mice are studied in the cuprizone model of neuroinflammation and demyelination. Mice lacking both genes show the most pronounced reduction in astrogliosis and microglial accumulation accompanied by decreased expression of the LPC receptor G2A, whereas MS patient samples show increased G2A. These results reveal that NLRC4 and NLRP3, which normally form distinct inflammasomes, activate an LPC-induced inflammasome and are important in astrogliosis and microgliosis

A role for the NLRP3 inflammasome in metabolic diseases—did Warburg miss inflammation?

The inflammasome is a protein complex that is comprised of an intracellular sensor that is typically an NLR protein, the pro-protein, procaspase-1 and adaptor molecule ASC. Inflammasome activation leads to caspase-1 maturation and the processing of its substrate, IL-1β and IL-18. Although initially the inflammasome was described as a complex that affects infection and inflammation, recent evidence suggests that inflammasome activation influences a host of metabolic disorders including atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes, gout and obesity. Another aspect regarding inflammation in general and inflammasome in specific is that the activation process has a profound effect on aerobic glycolysis, or the Warburg effect. How the Warburg effect might be link to inflammation and inflammasome activation is a novel concept to contemplate