Parental perceptions of the effects of exercise on behavior in children and adolescents with ADHD

AbstractBackgroundAnecdotally, parents often report that children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who engage in regular physical activity (PA) experience positive behavioral changes. The purpose of this study was to examine this anecdotal relationship to provide preliminary evidence relevant to the potential benefits of PA on ADHD symptoms.MethodsParents (n = 68) of children diagnosed with ADHD completed an Internet survey assessing perceptions of how PA influences their child's symptoms.ResultsA significantly greater percentage of parents reported that regular PA positively impacted symptoms. However, there were no uniform effects for all types of ADHD symptoms. The results indicate that there may be more positive benefits for symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity than for those of impulsivity.ConclusionThis is the first study to empirically document parents' perceptions of how PA influences ADHD and suggests that PA can be a viable strategy for reducing symptoms. PA may have greater benefits for specific symptoms of ADHD, providing critical information for developing PA interventions for children and adolescents

Examining psychosocial correlates of physical activity and sedentary behavior in youth with and without HIV

The objectives of this study were to examine differences in physical activity behaviors as a function of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status and sex, to test differences in physical activity self-efficacy (PASE), body weight satisfaction (BWS), and enjoyment of physical activity as a function of HIV status, and to determine if PASE, BWS, and enjoyment are associated with daily physical activity (daily PA), muscle strengthening activities, and sedentary behavior of youth with and without HIV. A total of 250 HIV positive (HIV+) and HIV negative (HIV-) youth from Botswana aged 12–23 years (Mean = 17.87, SD = 2.24) participated in the study. The HIV+ group (n = 88) was recruited from a previous 12-month antiretroviral therapy (ART) and nutrition intervention study. The HIV- group (n = 162) was randomly selected from public junior and senior (secondary) high schools in and around Gaborone. Participants’ PASE, BWS, enjoyment of physical activity, daily PA, muscle strengthening, body mass index (BMI), and sedentary behavior were obtained using items from the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance Survey. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed that the HIV- group (M = 1.20, SE = 0.06, CI = 1.08 to 1.32) had significantly higher daily PA than the HIV+ group (M = 0.99, SE = 0.08, CI = 0.82 to 1.15). The HIV- group (M = 0.91, SE = 0.06, CI = 0.79 to 1.03) also reported participating significantly more in muscle strengthening activities than the HIV+ group (M = 0.63, SD = 0.08, CI = 0.47 to 0.78). Multiple regression analyses showed that higher PASE (p < .001) and greater enjoyment of PA (p < .01) were predictive of higher daily PA. HIV- participants had higher PASE but lower BWS compared to HIV+ participants. Sex and age differences were observed in muscle strengthening activities and sedentary behavior. This study supports previous findings on the association of efficacy beliefs to daily PA and muscle strengthening activities. The findings have implications for PA interventions aimed at health promotion and mitigation of the effects of living with HIV/AIDS

Exercise, cognitive function, and the brain: Advancing our understanding of complex relationships

In recent years, scientists have shown a growing interest in the relationship between exercise, cognitive function, and the brain. The growing body of evidence supporting positive relationships is evidenced by the first mention of the beneficial effects of exercise on cognitive function appearing in the 9th edition of the American College of Sports Medicine's guidelines published in 2014.1 The strength of this evidence is further confirmed by recommendations relative to the benefits of exercise for cognitive performance and mental health being included in the 2nd edition of the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, a landmark policy statement released by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Acute exercise and cognitive function: Emerging research issues

The effect of acute exercise, a single bout of exercise, on cognitive performance has attracted much attention. The first narrative review of this literature was conducted by Tomporowski and Ellis.1 In their summary, the authors concluded that acute exercise facilitates cognitive performance; however, they emphasized that the studies at that time were atheoretical and suffered from methodological limitations, making the reliability of the conclusions uncertain. In a meta-analytic review conducted approximately a decade later, Etnier et al.2 concluded that acute exercise results in a positive significant effect on cognitive performance that was of small magnitude (effect size, ES = 0.16)

Beyond health messaging: a behavioural economics approach to increasing self-selected distance during an acute bout of cycling

The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of the perceived purpose of exercising on the self-selected distance peddled during an acute cycling task. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups (health, wealth, charity). All participants watched a video emphasizing the health benefits of performing at least 30 min of daily exercise. Those in the health group were not provided any additional information. Those in the wealth group were then informed that they would earn money for every two kilometres cycled. Those in the charity group were informed that they would earn money for a charity for every two kilometres cycled. Participants were not given a time/distance limit and were instructed to cycle until they chose to stop. Analyses revealed that participants in the wealth and charity group cycled significantly farther than those in the health group (approximately twice as far). Additionally, a significant sex by group interaction showed that women cycled farther for charity while men cycled farther for wealth. These results suggest that health messages used to increase exercise behaviour may benefit from exploring how paradigms from behavioural economics influence behaviors that have relevance to public health

Physical activity, cognitive function and academic achievement in children: A systematic review

Background: The relationship among physical activity (PA), fitness, cognitive function, and academic achievement in children is receiving considerable attention. The utility of PA to improve cognition and academic achievement is promising but uncertain; thus, this position stand will provide clarity from the available science. Objective: The purpose of this study was to answer the following questions: 1) among children age 5–13 yr, do PA and physical fitness influence cognition, learning, brain structure, and brain function? 2) Among children age 5–13 yr, do PA, physical education (PE), and sports programs influence standardized achievement test performance and concentration/attention? Study Eligibility Criteria: This study used primary source articles published in English in peer-reviewed journals. Articles that presented data on, PA, fitness, or PE/sport participation and cognition, learning, brain function/structure, academic achievement, or concentration/attention were included. Data Sources: Two separate searches were performed to identify studies that focused on 1) cognition, learning, brain structure, and brain function and 2) standardized achievement test performance and concentration/attention. PubMed, ERIC, PsychInfo, SportDiscus, Scopus, Web of Science, Academic Search Premier, and Embase were searched (January 1990–September 2014) for studies that met inclusion criteria. Sixty-four studies met inclusion criteria for the first search (cognition/learning/brain), and 73 studies met inclusion criteria for the second search (academic achievement/concentration). Study Appraisal and Synthesis Methods: Articles were grouped by study design as cross-sectional, longitudinal, acute, or intervention trials. Considerable heterogeneity existed for several important study parameters; therefore, results were synthesized and presented by study design. Results: A majority of the research supports the view that physical fitness, single bouts of PA, and PA interventions benefit children’s cognitive functioning. Limited evidence was available concerning the effects of PA on learning, with only one cross-sectional study meeting the inclusion criteria. Evidence indicates that PA has a relationship to areas of the brain that support complex cognitive processes during laboratory tasks. Although favorable results have been obtained from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies related to academic achievement, the results obtained from controlled experiments evaluating the benefits of PA on academic performance are mixed, and additional, well-designed studies are needed. Limitations: Limitations in evidence meeting inclusion criteria for this review include lack of randomized controlled trials, limited studies that are adequately powered, lack of information on participant characteristics, failure to blind for outcome measures, proximity of PA to measurement outcomes, and lack of accountability for known confounders. Therefore, many studies were ranked as high risk for bias because of multiple design limitations. Conclusions: The present systematic review found evidence to suggest that there are positive associations among PA, fitness, cognition, and academic achievement. However, the findings are inconsistent, and the effects of numerous elements of PA on cognition remain to be explored, such as type, amount, frequency, and timing. Many questions remain regarding how to best incorporate PA within schools, such as activity breaks versus active lessons in relation to improved academic achievement. Regardless, the literature suggests no indication that increases in PA negatively affect cognition or academic achievement and PA is important for growth and development and general health. On the basis of the evidence available, the authors concluded that PA has a positive influence on cognition as well as brain structure and function; however, more research is necessary to determine mechanisms and long-term effect as well as strategies to translate laboratory findings to the school environment. Therefore, the evidence category rating is B. The literature suggests that PA and PE have a neutral effect on academic achievement. Thus, because of the limitations in the literature and the current information available, the evidence category rating for academic achievement is C

Navigational aids and learner control in hypermedia instructional programs

This study examined the effects of learner control and navigational aids on performance in a hypermedia instructional program. Results indicated that students who were permitted to move freely within the program and had access to navigational aids, interacted more with the program and this was associated with higher performance on the posttest. The findings revealed that students who had control over the sequence of their instruction deviated from a linear path significantly more often when provided with navigational aids such as those used in this study. Navigational aids may provide a structure that promotes more explanatory behavior or interaction for students under learner control conditions

A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance

Many studies have been conducted to test the potentially beneficial effects of physical activity on cognition. The results of meta-analytic reviews of this literature suggest that there is a positive association between participation in physical activity and cognitive performance. The design of past research demonstrates the tacit assumption that changes in aerobic fitness contribute to the changes in cognitive performance. Therefore, the purpose of this meta-analysis was to use meta-regression techniques to statistically test the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance. Results indicated that there was not a significant linear or curvilinear relationship between fitness effect sizes (ESs) and cognitive ESs for studies using cross-sectional designs or posttest comparisons. However, there was a significant negative relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance for pre–post comparisons. The effects for the cross-sectional and pre–post comparisons were moderated by the age group of the participants; however, the nature of this effect was not consistent for the two databases. Based on the findings of this meta-analytic review, it is concluded that the empirical literature does not support the cardiovascular fitness hypothesis. To confirm the findings of this review, future research should specifically test the dose–response relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance. However, based upon the findings of this review, we also encourage future research to focus on other physiological and psychological variables that may serve to mediate the relationship between physical activity and cognitive performance

Physical Activity and Cognition in Older Adults: The Potential of Tai Chi Chuan

The purpose of this article is to review the potential of Tai Chi Chuan as a mode of physical activity that could have cognitive benefits for older adults and to provide potential directions for future research. A brief introduction to Tai Chi Chuan and its related physical benefits is provided. In addition, the empirical literature related to Tai Chi Chuan and cognition is reviewed. Potential mediators of the relationship between Tai Chi Chuan and cognition, including physical resources, disease status, and mental resources, are discussed. Based on the limitations of the extant literature, it is argued that future research in this area must provide more detailed descriptions of Tai Chi Chuan, particularly in terms of intensity and program progression. Consideration of the specific type of cognition that is expected to benefit is also encouraged, and approaches for further efforts to understand how Tai Chi Chuan affects cognition are recommended

Examining the time course of attention during golf putts of two different lengths in experienced golfers

A dual-task paradigm was used to investigate the time course of attention during putting relative to task difficulty (6 ft vs. 12 ft). Putting performance and reaction time (RT) were measured while 20 experienced golfers responded verbally to an auditory tone presented at 3 probe positions (PP) during the putt: backswing initiation (PP1), backswing peak (PP2), and before impact (PP3). There were 2 significant main effects for putting performance: task difficulty (better performance on the short putt) and probe position (worse performance at PP1 vs. PP3 and Catch Trials). During the short putt, there were no significant differences in RT as a function of PP, indicating that attentional demand remained constant throughout the stroke. RT of the long putt was significantly longer than the short putt, indicating that the long putt required greater attention. Skill level was examined as a potential moderating factor but did not significantly moderate results