Radiocarbon (¹⁴C AMS) dates for human skeletons, ceramics, charcoals, middens, fauna, artifacts and sediment.

<p>Timelines and occupation phases 1–4 are shown at the bottom. Associated chronometric data are compiled in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone-0002995-t002" target="_blank">Table 2</a> using current atmospheric standards <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone.0002995-Reimer1" target="_blank">[55]</a>. All of the burials that have been dated at Gobero fall within phases 2 and 3, which are shown as green to indicate favorable humid climate conditions; more arid intervals are shown as tan including occupation phases 1 and 4. Multiple dates on individual specimens or features are boxed. A dotted line separates early and mid-Holocene human burials. <i>Abbreviations</i>: <i>B.C.E.</i>, before current era (registered to calendar year zero); <i>B.P.</i>, before present (1950); <i>G1B8</i>, burial 8 on G1; <i>G1B11</i>, burial 11 on G1; <i>G3B8</i>, burial 8 on G3; <i>K</i>, Kiffian; <i>LT</i>, Late Tenerean; <i>T</i>, Tenerean.</p

Ages and associated data for 78 radiocarbon ¹⁴C AMS dates, which are shown graphically in Figure 3 (bottom to top).

<p>Dates from the same specimen or feature are grouped together (shaded or unshaded). For some sherds recovered in burials with Kiffian decorative motifs, dates based on plant temper are older than 6000 B.C.E. (dates 26–28). Other sherds found in burials and middens with Kiffian decorative motifs and dates based on plant temper are younger than 6000 B.C.E. (dates 29, 32, 34, 45, 46, 52). Although these younger ages may be aberrant (EAAG), they are concordant with dates based on other materials when found in the same midden (dates 44–54; JFS). Likewise, two direct dates on bone harpoon points (dates 64, 65) are concordant with other dated material in refuse area 5 associated with the early Holocene occupational phase 2 (dates 64, 65). An additional pair of direct dates (dates 66, 68) on bone harpoon points found in situ in paleolake sediment, however, are more than 2 kyr younger and date to the middle of the mid-Holocene occupational phase 3. Additional testing of bone harpoon points is warranted to better understand these results.</p

Faunal list at Gobero showing taxa recorded at archaeological sites (G1-3), in early and mid-Holocene middens (middens 1–4, refuse area 5), and in the Gobero area (in paleolake deposits or on deflation surfaces).

<p><i>Abbreviations</i>: +, species present; <b>x</b>, species very common.</p>1<p>As eggshell beads.</p

Craniometric means for human samples.

<p>Craniometric means for early and mid-Holocene skulls from Gobero and comparative samples elsewhere from northern Africa. <i>Measurement acronyms</i> (after <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone.0002995-Dutour1" target="_blank">[18]</a>): <i>LGO</i>, glabella-occipital length; <i>BPX</i>, maximum cranial breadth; <i>LBN</i>, basion-nasion; <i>HBB</i>, basion-bregma; <i>AFR</i>, frontal arc; <i>APA</i>, parietal arc; <i>AOC</i>, occipital arc; <i>CFR</i>, frontal chord; <i>COC</i>, occipital chord; <i>HNP</i>, nasion-prosthion; <i>HNZ</i>, nasion-nasospinale; <i>BNZ</i>, nasal breadth; <i>BZY</i>, bizygomtic breadth; <i>BFW</i>, minimum frontal breadth; <i>BFX</i>, maximum frontal breadth; <i>HORC</i>, horizontal circumference above the superciliary arches. <i>Sample acronyms and abbreviations</i>: <i>Ater</i>, Aterian; <i>EMI</i>, eastern Maghreb Iberomaurusian; <i>EMC</i>, eastern Maghreb Capsian; <i>Gob-e</i>, Gobero early Holocene; <i>Gob-m</i>, Gobero mid-Holocene; <i>Maur</i>, Mauritania; <i>Mali</i>, Hassi-el-Abiod, Mali; <i>WMI</i>, western Maghreb Iberomaurusian; <i>WMC</i>, western Maghreb Capsian.</p

Mid-Holocene midden.

<p>Portion of a mid-Holocene midden (midden 4) with matrix removed showing stacking of the valves of the clam Mutela, articulated fish vertebrae, and potsherds (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone-0002995-t002" target="_blank">Table 2, dates 42, 43</a>, average midpoint ∼4445 B.C.E.).</p

Location maps and geologic section across principal sites at Gobero.

<p>(A)-Map showing location of the Holocene archaeological site Gobero and the Holocene felsite quarry Alallaka on the border of the Aïr massif. (B)-Geologic map of main paleodune cemetery sites (G1-3) showing transect line connecting 13 geologic sections (see C, E, F) and a portion of a topographic transect (dashed line; see D). (C)-Stratigraphic profile across sites G1-3 based on 13 sections showing the Cretaceous peneplain of the Elrhaz Formation, the Late Pleistocene to early Holocene paleodune deposit, the early to mid-Holocene paleolake deposit, and Recent sand cover (15 times vertical exaggeration). (D)-Topographic transect (dashed line in B) between site G5 and a spillway on the Mazelet fault scarp located 1.3 km to the south (30 times vertical exaggeration). Habitation (3 m) and maximum (8 m) paleolake levels are shown, the latter resulting in inundation of archaeological sites G1-5. (E)-Stratigraphic section of paleolake deposit between sites G1 and G2 with fossiliferous zone limited to the uppermost 5 cm and location of sediment sample for ¹⁴C AMS date 75 (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone-0002995-t002" target="_blank">Table 2</a>). (F)-Stratigraphic section of paleodune deposit at site G1 showing human skeletons limited to the uppermost 1 m and the location of three OSL samples (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone-0002995-t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a>, dates 2–4). <i>Abbreviations</i>: <i>AMS 75</i>, ¹⁴C AMS date 75; <i>OSL</i>, optically stimulated luminescence.</p

Pollen sampling for three mid-Holocene burials.

<p>Pollen sampling for three mid-Holocene burials.</p

Early Holocene cemetery, burials and skulls.

<p>(A)-Gobero site G3 showing excavated burials (red dots). (B)-Enlarged map of the early Holocene cemetery showing the location of 17 undisturbed burials of skeletons with dark-stained bone (red dots). Five burials (red dot with outer ring) were directly dated to a narrow range of ∼7500±250 years B.C.E. (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone-0002995-g002" target="_blank">Figure 2</a>; <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone-0002995-t002" target="_blank">Table 2</a>). (C)-Skeleton (dark-stained) of an early Holocene adult male (G3B8; ∼7515 B.C.E.) buried in supine, hyperflexed posture with hands over the mouth and feet crossed. Computed-tomography cross-section (below) across the middle of the skeleton (red line) shows the tightly bundled configuration of major limb bones (within a 25 cm×12 cm rectangle) for an adult with stature approximately 2 m. (D)-Skull of early Holocene adult male (as in C) showing long, low calvarium, broad zygomatic width and relatively flat face. (E)-Skull of an early Holocene juvenile (G3B17b; ∼7630 B.C.E; estimated age 5 years) already showing long, low cranial proportions. Scale bar in C equals 13.3 cm for skeleton and 10 cm for CT scan; skull length (glabella-opisthocranion) in D and E equals 190.0 mm and 171.0 mm, respectively. <i>Abbreviations</i>: <i>f</i>, femur, <i>fi</i>, fibula; <i>h</i>, humerus; <i>r</i>, radius; <i>ti</i>, tibia; <i>ul</i>, ulna.</p

Principal components analysis of craniofacial dimensions among Late Pleistocene to mid-Holocene populations from the Maghreb and southern Sahara.

<p>Plot of first two principal components extracted from a mean matrix for 17 craniometric variables (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone-0002995-t004" target="_blank">Tables 4</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone-0002995-t007" target="_blank">7</a>) in 9 human populations (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone-0002995-t003" target="_blank">Table 3</a>) from the Late Pleistocene through the mid-Holocene from the Maghreb and southern Sahara. Seven trans-Saharan populations cluster together, whereas Late Pleistocene Aterians (Ater) and the mid-Holocene population at Gobero (Gob-m) are striking outliers. Axes are scaled by the square root of the corresponding eigenvalue for the principal component. <i>Abbreviations</i>: <i>Ater</i>, Aterian; <i>EMC</i>, eastern Maghreb Capsian; <i>EMI</i>, eastern Maghreb Iberomaurusian; <i>Gob-e</i>, Gobero early Holocene; <i>Gob-m</i>, Gobero mid-Holocene; <i>Mali</i>, Hassi-el-Abiod, Mali; <i>Maur</i>, Mauritania; <i>WMC</i>, western Maghreb Capsian; <i>WMI</i>, western Maghreb Iberomaurusian.</p

Ceramic, lithic, bone and hippo ivory artifacts and ornaments.

<p>(A)-Mid-Holocene adult male (G3B36; ∼3500 B.C.E.) buried with skull resting in a partial ceramic vessel (see B). (B)-Side and magnified view of ceramic vessel (G3-94) under skull (see A) showing rocker stamp decoration. Kiffian tool kit (C–F). (C)-Biserial bone harpoon point with perforated butt (GA154) made from a crocodile dentary. (D)-Uniserial fixed barbed point with notched butt (GA130) made from an artiodactyl long bone. (E)-Bone hook (GA31a). (F)-Crescent-shaped microlith (G1-71b) from site G1 (deflated). Tenerean tool kit (G-I). (G)-Felsite bifacial point (G3-1b) associated with an adult male burial (G3B4). (H)-One (G1-134) of four hollow-based points associated with a mid-Holocene adult female (G1B8; ∼3315 B.C.E.) in a triple burial (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone-0002995-g003" target="_blank">Figure 3E, F</a>). (I)-Anterior and magnified view of a felsite adze (GA110c) showing the green color and vesicles common to this source rock. (J)-Amazonite pendant (GA124). (K)-Upper arm bracelet (G1-7) carved in hippo ivory near the distal end of the left humerus in a juvenile burial (G1B2; ∼2835 B.C.E.). (L)-Bead (G3-6 necklace, bead 9) made of hippo ivory showing the paired bite mark from the incisors of a rodent (top, arrow) on a divot removed from the bead margin (bottom). (M)-Anterior and magnified lateral views of a pendant (part of G3-6 necklace) carved in hippo ivory and found in situ on a mid-Holocene adult female (G3B41; ∼3620 B.C.E.). Scale bars equal 5 cm in B and 2 cm in L. Ages given above are from ¹⁴C AMS dates on enamel bioapatite and represent the midpoint of the calibrated radiocarbon confidence interval (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0002995#pone-0002995-t002" target="_blank">Table 2</a>). Maximum artifact length is 11.9 cm in C, 13.2 cm in D, 2.0 cm in E, 2.3 cm in F, 2.04 cm in G, 2.0 cm in H, 8.2 cm in I, 4.4 cm in J, 8.4 cm in K, and 8.8 cm in M.</p