In the overall sample, children born to obese versus non-obese mothers had significantly greater alpha diversity as indicated by A) Shannon Diversity Index (SDI), a measure of overall alpha diversity; B) equitability, a measurement of evenness; C) Chao1, an estimation of richness; and D) the total observed operational taxonomic units (OTUs) (<i>p</i>s <.05; Means ±1 SE).

<p>In the overall sample, children born to obese versus non-obese mothers had significantly greater alpha diversity as indicated by A) Shannon Diversity Index (SDI), a measure of overall alpha diversity; B) equitability, a measurement of evenness; C) Chao1, an estimation of richness; and D) the total observed operational taxonomic units (OTUs) (<i>p</i>s <.05; Means ±1 SE).</p

Interactive effects of maternal obesity and socioeconomic status were observed; effects of maternal obesity on the child microbiome were primarily seen among the higher SES group.

<p>A) In the higher income group, children born to obese versus non-obese mothers clustered (adonis, p = 0.041) and had higher homogeneity (permdisp, p = 0.003). B) These effects of maternal obesity were not seen in children in the lower income group.</p

Maternal Obesity Is Associated with Alterations in the Gut Microbiome in Toddlers

<div><p>Children born to obese mothers are at increased risk for obesity, but the mechanisms behind this association are not fully delineated. A novel possible pathway linking maternal and child weight is the transmission of obesogenic microbes from mother to child. The current study examined whether maternal obesity was associated with differences in the composition of the gut microbiome in children in early life. Fecal samples from children 18–27 months of age (n = 77) were analyzed by pyro-tag 16S sequencing. Significant effects of maternal obesity on the composition of the gut microbiome of offspring were observed among dyads of higher socioeconomic status (SES). In the higher SES group (n = 47), children of obese (BMI≥30) versus non-obese mothers clustered on a principle coordinate analysis (PCoA) and exhibited greater homogeneity in the composition of their gut microbiomes as well as greater alpha diversity as indicated by the Shannon Diversity Index, and measures of richness and evenness. Also in the higher SES group, children born to obese versus non-obese mothers had differences in abundances of <i>Faecalibacterium</i> spp., <i>Eubacterium</i> spp., <i>Oscillibacter</i> spp., and <i>Blautia</i> spp. Prior studies have linked some of these bacterial groups to differences in weight and diet. This study provides novel evidence that maternal obesity is associated with differences in the gut microbiome in children in early life, particularly among those of higher SES. Among obese adults, the relative contribution of genetic versus behavioral factors may differ based on SES. Consequently, the extent to which maternal obesity confers measureable changes to the gut microbiome of offspring may differ based on the etiology of maternal obesity. Continued research is needed to examine this question as well as the relevance of the observed differences in gut microbiome composition for weight trajectory over the life course.</p></div

In the overall sample, datapoints did not cluster on a principle coordinate analysis (PCoA) scatter-plot as a function of maternal obesity.

<p>The beta-diversity non-parametric statistic adonis showed that children born to obese (n = 26) versus non-obese mothers (n = 51) had unique microbial profiles (<i>p</i> = 0.044). However, this was due to greater homogeneity among the obese group as measured with permdisp (<i>p</i> = 0.035).</p

Demographic Characteristics.

<p>*<i>p</i><.05.</p><p><a href="mailto:@White" target="_blank">@White</a> versus non-white.</p><p>Demographic Characteristics.</p

Top 20 Most Abundant Genera Among Low-Income Subjects.

<p>Data are the mean relative abundance ± standard error.</p><p>*p<.05 vs. Non-Obese; did not pass correction for multiple comparisons.</p><p>Top 20 Most Abundant Genera Among Low-Income Subjects.</p

Top 20 Most Abundant Genera Among High-Income Subjects.

<p>Data are the mean relative abundance ± standard error.</p><p>**p<.05 vs. Non-Obese, passed correction for multiple comparisions.</p><p>Top 20 Most Abundant Genera Among High-Income Subjects.</p

Health/Behavioral Characteristics.

<p>#Never and <3 months combined in analyses due to low occurrence.</p>∧<p>5–6 months and ≥7 months combined in analyses due to low occurrence.</p><p>Health/Behavioral Characteristics.</p

Top 20 Most Abundant Genera.

<p>Data are the mean relative abundance ± standard error.</p><p>**p<.05 vs. Non-Obese, passed correction for multiple comparisions.</p><p>*p<.05 vs. Non-Obese.</p><p>Top 20 Most Abundant Genera.</p

Across individuals, there was considerable variance in the <i>Firmicutes:Bacteroidetes</i> ratio, as shown.

<p>However, there were no differences between the children born to obese versus non-obese mothers in abundances of the major phyla, <i>Firmicutes</i> (<i>p</i> = 0.667) and <i>Bacteroidetes</i> (<i>p</i> = 0.914).</p