The effective average tax burden in the European Union and the USA: a computer-based calculation and comparison with the model of the European tax analyzer

In this paper we present a computer-based model (so-called European Tax Analyzer) for the international computation and comparison of company tax burdens. The methodology follows the forward-looking concepts for the measurement of effective average tax rates (EATR) on the basis of a model-firm. The EATR is computed for investments generating economic rents (i.e. pure profits above the market interest rate). In contrast to the prevailing approaches for calculating EATR based on separate and isolate investment projects the model-firm approach allows to calculate EATR for more complex and realistic conditions that are relevant for the decision making. Due to its flexibility another important advantage of the model-firm approach is the possibility to include the most relevant and complex provisions of the tax codes (i.e. tax systems, taxes, tax rates, and tax bases). A concrete computation and comparison of the EATR of corporations and their shareholders in five different countries reveals the wide spread between the national EATR. Moreover, for the time series 1995-2000 it could be shown that the differences between the EATR have declined a little. In spite of this convergence, however, tax distortions of competition did not become significantly less. --Tax burden comparison,capital income taxation,tax competition,tax harmonization in Europe

EU Company Taxation in Case of a Common Tax Base: A Computer-based Calculation and Comparison Using the Enhanced Model of the European Tax Analyzer

Within the EU the relation between financial and tax accounting will be significantly influenced by the regulation adopted in June 2002 that obliges all listed companies to prepare their consolidated accounts according to International Accounting Standards / International Financial Reporting Standards (IAS/IFRS). Since dependency of financial and tax accounting according to different degrees prevails in all EU member states a linkage between IAS/IFRS and tax accounting seems to be possible. Compared to national GAAP the advantage of IAS/IFRS as a starting point for tax accounting derives from the advantages of the creation of a common tax base in the EU. However, the adoption of IAS/IFRS has to be restricted to those standards that are convenient for tax purposes. In particular, this means that tax accounting still has to follow the realisation principle as a general principle; the IAS/IFRS ?fair value-accounting? therefore cannot be adopted for tax purposes. In this paper we present estimates for the consequences of IAS/IFRS-based tax accounting on the comparative effective tax burdens of companies in 13 countries (Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, the United Kingdom, and the USA). Therefore, certain provisions of IAS/IFRS were considered as a starting point for the tax base. The effective tax burdens are calculated on the basis of the European Tax Analyzer model which was enhanced for the purposes of this study. A further question arises as to what extent an exclusive harmonisation of the tax base will effectively reduce the current EU-wide differences of effective company tax burdens. It turns out that a common tax base cannot alleviate the current EU-wide differences of effective company tax burdens. A major finding of our study reveals that the effective tax burdens in all countries considered here (except Ireland) tend to increase slightly since the tax bases tend to become broader. This offers the possibility to member states to reduce the nominal tax rate leaving the overall effective tax burden unchanged. A tax policy of tax cut cum base broadening would not only tend to increase the attractiveness of the member states as a location for companies. At the same time, this would reduce dispersions of effective tax burdens across industries. Therefore, such a tax policy is in line of the long term Community goals to become more competitive in international terms. --International Company Taxation,Effective Tax Burden,Tax Accounting,International Accounting Standards

The effective tax burden of companies in the member states of the EU : the perspective of a multinational investor

This study presents estimates of the effective levels of company taxation in the 15 Member States of the EU. The study is established from the perspective of a multinational investor and provides relevant qualitative and quantitative information about the company tax regimes in the EU Member States which are in force in 2001. The main aim of the study is to compute and to compare effective marginal tax rates (EMTR) on domestic investment in all 15 EU Member States. A secondary aim is to work out the impact of the different tax drivers on the effective tax burden, i.e. to analyse how the EMTRs of the Member States are influenced by the tax systems, the different types of profit and non-profit taxes, the tax bases and the tax rates. The computation of the EMTR and the quantitative analysis is based on the well known approach of King and Fullerton which is also used, for example, in international tax burden comparison by the OECD and the European Commission. We refer to a typical manufacturing company as a base case. This company – which has the legal structure of a corporation – is characterised by a particular combination of investments and forms of finance. We considered five different types of investment: intangibles, industrial buildings, machinery, financial assets and inventories. The financing policy considered three sources of finance: new equity capital, retained earnings and debt. The calculations take into account the most relevant tax provisions. Relating to company taxation, we considered the corporation tax, additional profit taxes and non-profit taxes, the tax rates and the most relevant aspects of the tax base. Chapter B presents a brief and well structured overview on the company tax regimes in the EU Member States

The Effective Average Tax Burden in the European Union and the USA : A Computer-based Calculation and Comparison with the Model of the European Tax Analyzer

In this paper we present a computer-based model (so-called European Tax Analyzer) for the international computation and comparison of company tax burdens. The methodology follows the forward-looking concepts for the measurement of effective average tax rates (EATR) on the basis of a model-firm. The EATR is computed for investments generating economic rents (i.e. pure profits above the market interest rate). In contrast to the prevailing approaches for calculating EATR based on separate and isolate investment projects the model-firm approach allows to calculate EATR for more complex and realistic conditions that are relevant for the decision making. Due to its flexibility another important advantage of the model-firm approach is the possibility to include the most relevant and complex provisions of the tax codes (i.e. tax systems, taxes, tax rates, and tax bases). A concrete computation and comparison of the EATR of corporations and their shareholders in five different countries reveals the wide spread between the national EATR. Moreover, for the time series 1995-2000 it could be shown that the differences between the EATR have declined a little. In spite of this convergence, however, tax distortions of competition did not become significantly less

Besteuerung verbundener Unternehmen und Finanzierung: Die steuerliche Behandlung der nationalen und grenzüberschreitenden Beteiligungs- und Fremdfinanzierung von Kapitalgesellschaften in Deutschland, Frankreich und Großbritannien

Der folgende Beitrag zeigt anhand der Besteuerungswirkungen, die in einem zweistufigen kapitalistischen Unternehmensaufbau unter Einbeziehung der Anteilseigner auftreten, gegenwärtige Steuerbelastungsunterschiede bei nationalen und grenzüberschreitenden Investitionen von im europäischen Binnenmarkt tätigen Unternehmen auf. Es wird insbesondere danach differenziert, ob die Investitionen in Form von Eigen- oder Fremdkapital finanziert werden. Als Sitzstaaten für die Unternehmen werden Deutschland, Frankreich und Großbritannien herangezogen. ; The following article examines the effects of different business tax systems on corporations' decisions to finance a national or a foreign subsidiary with debt or equity. The article focuses on how the corporation tax systems in France, Germany and the United Kingdom eliminate double taxation of intercompany distributions, the taxation of distributed profits from national or foreign sources, the effects of withholding taxes on dividends as weIl as on other business taxes in the different countries. --

Unternehmensbesteuerung und Finanzierung: Eine vergleichende Analyse der Besteuerungskonzeptionen für Kapitalgesellschaften in Deutschland, Frankreich und Großbritannien

Im Rahmen dieses Aufsatzes wird unter Heranziehung der deutschen, französischen und britischen Besteuerungskonzeptionen für Kapitalgesellschaften analysiert, ob und inwieweit in Deutschland, Frankreich und Großbritannien steuerartenbezogene Einflüsse auf die Entscheidung bezüglich der Finanzierung von Kapitalgesellschaften durch Beteiligungs- oder Fremdkapital bestehen. ; The following article examines the effects of different business tax systems on a shareholder' s decision to finance a corporation with debt or equity by comparing the basic business taxation concepts in France, Germany and the United Kingdom. The article focuses on the corporation income taxation concepts as weIl as on other business taxes within the different countries. --

Die Deutsche Seelsorgestudie 2012–2014

In den Jahren 2012–2014 wurde von einer interdisziplinären Forschergruppe eine flächendeckendeund repräsentative pastoralpsychologische Studie mit 8600 Personen zu Ressourcen und Belastungenin der Lebens- und Arbeitssituation bei allen seelsorglichen Berufen der deutschen Diözesen durchgeführt.Erfragt wurden Daten zu Persönlichkeit, Gesundheit, Zufriedenheit, Motivation, Belastungen,Tätigkeitsfeldern und Spiritualität. Präsentiert werden die Ziele der Studie, das methodische Konzept,das Forschungsdesign, ausgewählte Resultate und Thesen zu den Konsequenzen für die Seelsorgenden,die pastorale Organisation und die Konzeption von zukünftiger Pastoral. Von besonderer Bedeutungsind die differenzierten Ergebnisse zur Zufriedenheit, dem Wechselspiel von Person und Tätigkeitsfeldern,den verschiedenen Gesundheitsressourcen bzw. -belastungen und der Bedeutung derSpiritualität. Diskutiert werden u. a. die Notwendigkeit eines ressourcenorientierten Personaleinsatzes,diözesaner Gesundheitsförderung, Stärkung von Lebenssicherheit und spiritueller Verankerung.Between 2012 and 2014 an interdisciplinary research group carried out a comprehensive and representativepastoral-psychological study on the (psychological) resources and demands in the life andwork situation of 8,600 pastoral ministers from 22 of the 27 dioceses in Germany (diocesan clergy,religious, and lay). Data was gathered on the participants’ personalities, life and job satisfaction, motivation,health, stress factors, and areas of responsibility/activity. This article presents the aims of thestudy, its methodology and research design, and important selected findings. It indicates their significancefor pastoral care, pastoral organization, and for a vision of pastoral ministry in the future. Onthis basis it also formulates a number of “theses”. Of particular significance are the differentiated findingson the quality of life, on the interplay between the personality of the pastoral minister and her orhis domains of activity, their various health resources and stress factors, as well as the importance ofspirituality. The need to match the gifts/talents of pastoral personnel with the needs of a particularpastoral placement, to promote health initiatives at a diocesan level, to strengthen the sense of coherence,as well as the need for grounding one’s spirituality are also discussed

Spiritual Dryness as a Measure of a Specific Spiritual Crisis in Catholic Priests: Associations with Symptoms of Burnout and Distress

Spirituality/religiosity is recognized as a resource to cope with burdening life events and chronic illness. However, less is known about the consequences of the lack of positive spiritual feelings. Spiritual dryness in clergy has been described as spiritual lethargy, a lack of vibrant spiritual encounter with God, and an absence of spiritual resources, such as spiritual renewal practices. To operationalize experiences of ``spiritual dryness'' in terms of a specific spiritual crisis, we have developed the ``spiritual dryness scale'' (SDS). Here, we describe the validation of the instrument which was applied among other standardized questionnaires in a sample of 425 Catholic priests who professionally care for the spiritual sake of others. Feelings of ``spiritual dryness'' were experienced occasionally by up to 40%, often or even regularly by up to 13%. These experiences can explain 44% of variance in daily spiritual experiences, 30% in depressive symptoms, 22% in perceived stress, 20% in emotional exhaustion, 19% in work engagement, and 21% of variance of ascribed importance of religious activity. The SDS-5 can be used as a specific measure of spiritual crisis with good reliability and validity in further studies