Avitourism and Australian important bird and biodiversity areas

Formal protected areas will not provide adequate protection to conserve all biodiversity, and are not always designated using systematic or strategic criteria. Using a systematic process, the Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA) network was designed to highlight areas of conservation significance for birds (i.e. IBA trigger species), and more recently general biodiversity. Land use activities that take place in IBAs are diverse, including consumptive and non-consumptive activities. Avitourism in Australia, generally a non-consumptive activity, is reliant on the IBA network and the birds IBAs aim to protect. However, companies tend not to mention IBAs in their marketing. Furthermore, avitourism, like other nature-based tourism has the potential to be both a threatening process as well as a conservation tool. We aimed to assess the current use of IBAs among Australian-based avitour companies’ marketing, giving some indication of which IBAs are visited by avitourists on organised tours. We reviewed online avitour itineraries, recorded sites featuring in descriptions of avitours and which IBA trigger species are used to sell those tours. Of the 209 avitours reviewed, Queensland is the most featured state (n = 59 tours), and 73% feature at least one IBA. Daintree (n = 22) and Bruny Island (n = 17) IBAs are the most popular, nationally. Trigger species represent 34% (n = 254 out of 747) of species used in avitour descriptions. The most popular trigger species’ are wetland species including; Brolga (n = 37), Black-necked Stork (n = 30) and Magpie Goose (n = 27). Opportunities exist to increase collaboration between avitour companies and IBA stakeholders. Our results can provide guidance for managing sustainability of the avitourism industry at sites that feature heavily in avitour descriptions and enhance potential cooperation between avitour companies, IBA stakeholders and bird conservation organisations

Tourism as a threat to critically endangered and endangered birds: Global patterns and trends in conservation hotspots

More than 12 % of bird species are threatened with extinction. Numerous anthropogenic activities and processes are considered responsible for such declines, including tourism related activities. These activities often occur in global biodiversity hotspots but few studies consider the potential risks associated with tourism. The relative importance of tourism as a threat to birds was quantified using a global analysis of the threats facing critically endangered and endangered birds in the hotspots. Sixty-three critically endangered and endangered bird species are reportedly threatened by tourism. Among those 63 species, marine, coastal and aquatic birds are threatened more by tourism than was expected. Hotspots with the most species threatened by tourism are Polynesia–Micronesia and the Mediterranean Basin. This study uses individual threatening processes in a new way to characterise hotspots for conservation action, advancing previous identification criteria. Analysing hotspots in terms of the relative presence of individual threatening processes may help to more effectively direct future research in these priority regions

Exploring attitudes and understanding of global conservation practice among birders and avitourists for enhanced conservation of birds

Birders are generally nature-oriented; however, their understanding of key bird conservation issues remains under-examined. We surveyed English-speaking birders online and face-to-face, asking questions related to their views on conservation, conservation funding and their understanding of a global bird conservation programme (BirdLife International’s Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas [IBAs]). Most birders who responded to the survey were from Australia, the United Kingdom, South Africa and the USA. Birders tend to value bird conservation in an ecocentric way, often citing the overarching importance of general biodiversity. The ecological roles that birds play were also highlighted, but this varied across socio-demographic groups. Despite their positive support for conservation, less than half of all birders surveyed were familiar with the IBA programme. Familiarity with IBAs was driven by socio-demographic factors, with males more familiar than females and South African birders more familiar than birders from Australia and the United Kingdom. Most birders are willing to make contributions to bird conservation when visiting key birding sites, however they also feel governments should remain the main funders of conservation. Opportunities to enhance engagement between birders and bird conservation groups exist with most indicating a desire to learn more about bird conservation at birding sites. Increasing access to relevant information and presenting opportunities to contribute to conservation at birding sites could provide tangible benefits for bird habitats, protected areas and bird conservation groups

A review of the impacts of nature based recreation on birds

Nature based recreation such as wildlife viewing, hiking, running, cycling, canoeing, horse riding and dog walking can have negative environmental effects. A review of the recreation ecology literature published in English language academic journals identified 69 papers from 1978 to 2010 that examined the effect of these activities on birds. Sixty-one of the papers (88%) found negative impacts, including changes in bird physiology (all 11 papers), immediate behaviour (37 out of 41 papers), as well as changes in abundance (28 out of 33 papers) and reproductive success (28 out of 33 papers). Previous studies are concentrated in a few countries (United States, England, Argentina and New Zealand), mostly in cool temperate or temperate climatic zones, often in shoreline or wetland habitats, and mostly on insectivore, carnivore and crustaceovore/molluscivore foraging guilds. There is limited research in some regions with both high bird diversity and nature based recreation such as mainland Australia, Central America, Asia, and Africa, and for popular activities such as mountain bike riding and horse riding. It is clear, however, that non-motorised nature based recreation has negative impacts on a diversity of birds from a range of habitats in different climatic zones and regions of the world

Searching for common ground, a scientific approach to subjective environmental impact assessments: an example from the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park

In order to break away from the frequent subjective nature of assessing potential environmental impacts and alternative scenarios when undertaking new developments a structured scientific approach was adopted in the present analysis. An assessment of the proposed upgrading of a 31-km stretch of road between Leeudril and Kij-Kij waterholes on the dry Nossob River in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) was undertaken. Relocation of the existing road was proposed as an alternative to upgrading the road as the potential and future impacts on the riverbed ecosystem could be reduced. A systematic assessment of biophysical variables within the riverbed habitat was made. A multivariate clustering analysis revealed a high level of congruency with a purely subjective assessment that potentially supports an “apples and oranges” comparison of such approaches in environmental assessments. Furthermore, the present and potential environmental impacts of each of the various upgrading options were compared. Significant environmental impacts were envisaged when considering surface and ground water hydrology, flora and the sensitive nature of the landscape. Given the requirements of the park in terms of providing a tourism product the preferred action in terms of upgrading the road would require a compromise between ecological and aesthetic requirements in order to provide reasonable tourism opportunities. The scientific approach adopted in the current analysis appears to offer a more defendable result upon which management decisions can be based compared to purely subjective assessments but is not without limitations

Birdwatching and avitourism: A global review of research into its participant markets, distribution and impacts, highlighting future research priorities to inform sustainable avitourism management

Avitourism is an emerging sub-sector of the nature-based tourism industry, where tourist travel motivations are focused around birdwatching. Certain aspects of the industry are yet to be examined adequately. This paper reviews patterns among 66 research studies published between 1989 and 2014 that examine avitourism, its participants and stakeholders across several research themes. There is a distinct northern hemisphere bias (n = 46) in avitourism research effort, with research dominated by studies of the avitourists themselves (n = 35). Key objectives of studies reviewed were primarily concerned with the economic impacts of avitourism (n = 21), the motivations of birders as avitourists (n = 18) and increasing our understanding of the avitourism market (n = 12). Ten studies specifically examined the types of birds or bird-related events (i.e. migrations) avitourists seek. Few studies (n = 6) have examined the negative impacts on birds arising from avitourism. The sustainability of avitourism is dependent upon understanding both the avitourism product and the willingness of avitourists to see particular species. Enhanced understanding of avitourism opportunities and avitourist desires could guide industry growth, assist the economies of many communities, highlight birds and habitats vulnerable to the negative impacts of avitourism, and help finance conservation work. A series of priority research themes are outlined

Using a choice experiment and birder preferences to guide bird-conservation funding

Conservation of biodiversity, including birds, continues to challenge natural-area managers. Stated-preference methods (e.g., choice experiment [CE]) are increasingly used to provide data for valuation of natural ecosystems. We used a CE to calculate birders’ willingness to pay for different levels of bioecological attributes (threatened species, endemic species, and diversity) of birding sites with hypothetical entry fees. The CE was delivered at popular birding and avitourism sites in Australia and the United Kingdom. Latent-class modeling results revealed heterogeneous preferences among birders and correspondingly variable willingness to pay. Four clear groups were apparent: quantity-driven birders, special-birds seekers, confused respondents, and price-is-no-object birders. Quantity-driven birders were attracted to sites that deliver high levels of diversity and endemic species for which they were willing to pay $135 and$66 to visit, respectively, above what they were willing to pay to visit a site with low levels of diversity and few endemic and threatened species . Special-bird seekers valued threatened species and high levels of endemic species most (willingness to pay $45 and$46, respectively). Confused respondents’ preferences were difficult to determine, but they were the most sensitive to the hypothetical entry fees, unlike the price-is-no-object birders, who were not at all sensitive to cost. Our findings demonstrate that birders are amenable to paying for their preferred birding experience. These payments could provide an alternative source of funding in some avitourism sites on both public and private land. Such alternative revenue streams should be explored and given full consideration in increasingly competitive conservation-financing environments

Environmental, safety and management issues of unauthorised trail technical features for mountain bicycling

Mountain biking is a popular activity in urban areas, including in forest remnants in Australia cities. To increase the technical challenge for riders, trail technical features such as jumps, bridges, mounds and ditches, along with informal trails are often constructed without authorisation. We assessed the social, environmental and management challenges associated with the presence of such features, developed a method for assessing them, and then used this method to examine them in an endangered forest within the Gold Coast in Australia. In a 29 ha remnant of Blackbutt (Eucalyptus pilularis) forest there were 116 unauthorised features, mostly jumps, ditches and mounds, which collectively resulted in an area of 1601 m2 of bare soil and 4010 m2 of undergrowth cleared. Features differed in their size, construction materials used, and their impacts on the environment. Although nearly two thirds had low to moderate safety, most were in moderate to good condition, had fall zones and optional routes for riders. Management options for land managers, in this case a publicly funded University, include (1) feature removal and site rehabilitation, (2) conversion to official features, (3) removal and provision of an alternative location for official features, or (4) maintain the status quo. There are social, financial and environmental benefits and limitations to each of these options highlighting that unauthorised trail technical features are a challenge for planners and managers that often have no easy solution

Estimation of the lion (Panthera leo) population in the southwestern Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park using a capture–recapture survey

A previous estimate of the lion (Panthera leo) population in the southwestern  Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) was made over 20 years ago. This together with increased fears regarding the viability of the population as a result of recent killings of roaming animals, an observed increase in non-violent mortalities during 1996, and possible reduced genetic viability due to suspected isolation, prompted another investigation. Between October 1996 and December 1996, 68 lions were captured and marked and subjected to two recapture (resighting) samples. The minimum estimate derived from direct enumeration of marked and unmarked individuals is between 100–103 individuals. Assessment of the adult and subadult population using the Lincoln-Petersen estimator and the software program NOREMARK gives a figure between 92 and 125. The current estimate is below the previous estimate of between 113 and 140 lions. Lion densities of 1.2 adult and subadult lions/100 km2 in the semi-arid southern Kalahari are considerably lower than those in more mesic regions. Furthermore, there appears to be some demographic variability with the ratio of females to males being twice as high as that recorded 20 years ago.Keywords: Lincoln-Petersen, Kalahari, semi-arid, carnivore, population estimate, demography