Rheology of Protic Ionic Liquids and Their Mixtures

The rheological properties of five pure protic ionic liquids (ILs), ethylammonium nitrate (EAN), propylammonium nitrate (PAN), ethanolammonium nitrate (EtAN), ethylammonium formate (EAF), and dimethylethylammonium formate (DMEAF), are characterized and interpreted by considering the effects of both the H-bond network and the solvophobic nanostructure of the liquids. The results demonstrate that these effects are not, however, independent or simply additive. At 20 °C, EtAN has the highest zero shear viscosity of 156.1 mPa·s, followed by PAN (89.3 mPa·s), EAN (35.9 mPa·s), EAF (23.1 mPa·s), and DMEAF (9.8 mPa·s). The primary ammonium ILs behave as Newtonian fluids at low shear rates but shear thin at high shear. Fits to the Vogel–Fulcher–Tammann model reveal that nanostructure is not affected appreciably by temperature and that all the ILs studied are of intermediate fragility. The rheology of binary mixtures of these ILs was analyzed and used to demonstrate fundamental differences in the way IL cations and anions interact. IL mixtures containing both nitrate and formate anions resist flow more strongly than the pure liquids, which is a consequence of the difference in hydrogen bonding capacity of the anions. Mixing cations can give rise to complex behavior due to the offsetting effects of hydrogen bonding and solvophobic nanostructure formation

Host substrate affinities for the laccate (shiny) <i>Ganoderma</i> species collected in the U.S., where host substrate was known (n = 298).

<p>Host substrate affinities for the laccate (shiny) <i>Ganoderma</i> species collected in the U.S., where host substrate was known (n = 298).</p

Frequency of taxa representing the laccate <i>Ganoderma</i> species collected in the United States.

<p>Percentages are representative of the total collections (n = 507). Species in the legend are represented in a clockwise order on the pie chart.</p

Distribution of collections of the laccate <i>Ganoderma</i> species studied.

<p>Species are shaded in different colors in each state where a collection of that species was made.</p

In situ photos of the laccate <i>Ganoderma</i> species in the United States.

<p>A) <i>G</i>. <i>curtisii</i> fruiting at the base of a dead oak tree (<i>Quercus</i> sp.) in Georgia (290GA), B) <i>G</i>. <i>lucidum</i> fruiting from near an oak (<i>Quercus</i> sp.) in California (<i>not in collection</i>) <i>(</i>photo credit: Shane Hanofee), C) <i>G</i>. <i>martinicense</i> fruiting from a southern red oak <i>(Quercus falcata</i>) in Georgia (230GA) (photo credit: Bill Sheehan), D) <i>G</i>. <i>curtisii</i> f. sp. <i>meredithiae</i> fruiting from slash pine roots in Florida (140FL), E) <i>G</i>. <i>oregonense</i> fruiting on white fir (<i>Abies concolor</i>) in California (no collection data) <i>(</i>photo credit: Arthur Grupe), F) <i>G</i>. <i>polychromum</i> fruiting on a pruning wound on a coast live oak (<i>Quercus agrifolia</i>) in California (331CA) (photo credit: Drew Zwart), G) <i>G</i>. <i>ravenelii</i> fruiting from the roots of an oak tree (<i>Quercus</i> sp.) in Florida (no collection data), H) <i>G</i>. <i>sessile</i> fruiting on the lower bole and root flare of honeylocust (<i>Gleditsia tricanthos</i>) in New York (276NY) (photo credit: Margery Daughtrey), I) <i>G</i>. <i>tsugae</i> fruiting on the trunk of eastern hemlock <i>(Tsuga canadensis</i>) in Wisconsin (342WI), J) <i>G</i>. <i>tuberculosum</i> fruiting on the root flare of pongam tree (<i>Pongamia pinnata</i>) in Florida (335FL), K) <i>G</i>. cf. <i>weberianum</i> near a recently removed live oak tree (<i>Quercus virginiana</i>) in Florida (261FL), L) <i>G</i>. <i>zonatum</i> fruiting on the trunk of an American oil palm (<i>Elaeis oleifera</i>) in Florida (283FL), and M) <i>Tomophagus colossus</i> fruiting on the cycad <i>Macrozamia moorei</i> in Florida (255FL) (photo credit: Michael Calonje).</p

Examples of basidiospore morphology (bars = 10 μm).

<p>A) “smooth” (finely echinulated) from <i>G</i>. <i>sessile</i> (287SC), B) “rough” (coarsely echinulated) basidiospores from <i>G</i>. <i>curtisii</i> (158FL), and C) elongated, elliptical basidiospores of <i>G</i>. <i>zonatum</i> (265FL).</p

Morphological assessment of the laccate <i>Ganoderma</i> species present in the United States.

<p>Morphological assessment of the laccate <i>Ganoderma</i> species present in the United States.</p

Elucidating "lucidum": Distinguishing the diverse laccate <i>Ganoderma</i> species of the United States - Fig 4

<p><b>Contextual colors (A) and features (B) of the laccate <i>Ganoderma</i> species of the U.S. (bars = 20 μm)</b> A) broad categories of the context tissue colors, where arrows point to context tissue; i) white context tissue (324WI, <i>G</i>. <i>tsugae</i>), ii) light buff to cream context tissue (112CA, <i>G</i>. <i>polychromum</i>), and iii) dark brown context tissue (265FL, <i>G</i>. <i>zonatum</i>). B) contextual features such as melanoid bands (“Mb”), concentric growth zones (“Cz”), and contextual chlamydospores (“Ch”); i) melanoid bands embedded in context tissue of pileus and stipe (158FL, <i>G</i>. <i>curtisii</i>), ii) concentric growth zones in context tissue of the pileus (171FL, <i>G</i>. <i>sessile</i>), iii) close-up (10x) of melanoid bands in the context tissue of the pileus (NCSCLG 1804, <i>G</i>. <i>curtisii</i> f.sp. <i>meredithiae</i>), iv) close-up (10x) of melanoid bands and concentric growth zones in context tissue of the pileus (NCSCLG 19006, <i>G</i>. <i>martinicense</i>), v) double walled, globose contextual chlamydospore (255FL, <i>T</i>. <i>colossus</i>), and vi) double walled contextual, globose chlamydospore with striated margin (FLAS F59210, <i>G</i>. cf. <i>weberianum</i>).</p

Sample accessions, location, and GenBank Accession numbers for ITS, tef1α, rpb1, and rpb2 used in phylogenetic analysis.

<p>Sample accessions, location, and GenBank Accession numbers for ITS, tef1α, rpb1, and rpb2 used in phylogenetic analysis.</p

Key to the laccate <i>Ganoderma</i> species in the United States.

<p>Members of the laccate <i>Ganoderma</i> are have shiny or varnished pilei, and can be sessile, stipitate or pseudostipitate. The context tissue of the laccate <i>Ganoderma</i> species is corky to felty in texture, and generally white, cream to light buff, or cinnamon brown. Context tissue can have melanoid/resinous bands and/or concentric growth zones present or absent. Some taxa produce contextual chlamydospores that are double-walled, hyaline to pigmented, and ornamented or smooth. The basidiospores are double-walled, golden-brown in 5% KOH, echinulated and generally broadly ovoid to elliptical with a truncated apex at maturity. Ecologically these species are associated with a white rot type decay typically on hardwood, coniferous, or palm substrates. <b>Disclaimer:</b> This key is solely based on morphology, host preference and known geographic distributions of the laccate <i>Gaonderma</i> present in the U.S. based on this study.</p