65 research outputs found
Selection on treatment in the target population of generalizabillity and transportability analyses
Investigators are increasingly using novel methods for extending
(generalizing or transporting) causal inferences from a trial to a target
population. In many generalizability and transportability analyses, the trial
and the observational data from the target population are separately sampled,
following a non-nested trial design. In practical implementations of this
design, non-randomized individuals from the target population are often
identified by conditioning on the use of a particular treatment, while
individuals who used other candidate treatments for the same indication or
individuals who did not use any treatment are excluded. In this paper, we argue
that conditioning on treatment in the target population changes the estimand of
generalizability and transportability analyses and potentially introduces
serious bias in the estimation of causal estimands in the target population or
the subset of the target population using a specific treatment. Furthermore, we
argue that the naive application of marginalization-based or weighting-based
standardization methods does not produce estimates of any reasonable causal
estimand. We use causal graphs and counterfactual arguments to characterize the
identification problems induced by conditioning on treatment in the target
population and illustrate the problems using simulated data. We conclude by
considering the implications of our findings for applied work
Generalizing and transporting inferences about the effects of treatment assignment subject to non-adherence
We discuss the identifiability of causal estimands for generalizability and
transportability analyses, both under perfect and imperfect adherence to
treatment assignment. We consider a setting where the trial data contain
information on baseline covariates, assignment at baseline, intervention at
baseline (point treatment), and outcomes; and where the data from
non-randomized individuals only contain information on baseline covariates. In
this setting, we review identification results under perfect adherence and
study two examples in which non-adherence severely limits the ability to
transport inferences about the effects of treatment assignment to the target
population. In the first example, trial participation has a direct effect on
treatment receipt and, through treatment receipt, on the outcome (a "trial
engagement effect" via adherence). In the second example, participation in the
trial has unmeasured common causes with treatment receipt. In both examples,
the effect of assignment on the outcome in the target population is not
identifiable. In the first example, however, the effect of joint interventions
to scale-up trial activities that affect adherence and assign treatment is
identifiable. We conclude that generalizability and transportability analyses
should consider trial engagement effects via adherence and selection for
participation on the basis of unmeasured factors that influence adherence
Assessing model performance for counterfactual predictions
Counterfactual prediction methods are required when a model will be deployed
in a setting where treatment policies differ from the setting where the model
was developed, or when the prediction question is explicitly counterfactual.
However, estimating and evaluating counterfactual prediction models is
challenging because one does not observe the full set of potential outcomes for
all individuals. Here, we discuss how to tailor a model to a counterfactual
estimand, how to assess the model's performance, and how to perform model and
tuning parameter selection. We also provide identifiability results for
measures of performance for a potentially misspecified counterfactual
prediction model based on training and test data from the same (factual) source
population. Last, we illustrate the methods using simulation and apply them to
the task of developing a statin-na\"{i}ve risk prediction model for
cardiovascular disease
On the causal interpretation of rate-change methods:the prior event rate ratio and rate difference
A growing number of studies use data before and after treatment initiation in groups exposed to different treatment strategies to estimate "causal effects" using a ratio measure called the prior event rate ratio (PERR). Here, we offer a causal interpretation for PERR and its additive scale analog, the prior event rate difference (PERD). We show that causal interpretation of these measures requires untestable rate-change assumptions about the relationship between (1) the change of the counterfactual ratebefore and after treatment initiation in the treated group under hypothetical intervention to implement the control treatment; and (2) the change of the factual rate before and after treatment initiation in the control group. The rate-change assumption is on the multiplicative scale for PERR, but on the additive scale for PERD; the two assumptions hold simultaneously under testable, but unlikely, conditions. Even if investigators can pick the most appropriate scale, the relevant rate-change assumption may not hold exactly, so we describe sensitivity analysis methods to examine how assumption violations of different magnitudes would affect study results. We illustrate the methods using data from a published study of proton pump inhibitors and pneumonia
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Law enforcement duties and sudden cardiac death among police officers in United States: case distribution study
Objective: To assess the association between risk of sudden cardiac death and stressful law enforcement duties compared with routine/non-emergency duties. Design: Case distribution study (case series with survey information on referent exposures). Setting: United States law enforcement. Participants: Summaries of deaths of over 4500 US police officers provided by the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund and the Officer Down Memorial Page from 1984 to 2010. Main outcome measures Observed and expected sudden cardiac death counts and relative risks for sudden cardiac death events during specific strenuous duties versus routine/non-emergency activities. Independent estimates of the proportion of time that police officers spend across various law enforcement duties obtained from surveys of police chiefs and front line officers. Impact of varying exposure assessments, covariates, and missing cases in sensitivity and stability analyses. Results: 441 sudden cardiac deaths were observed during the study period. Sudden cardiac death was associated with restraints/altercations (25%, n=108), physical training (20%, n=88), pursuits of suspects (12%, n=53), medical/rescue operations (8%, n=34), routine duties (23%, n=101), and other activities (11%, n=57). Compared with routine/non-emergency activities, the risk of sudden cardiac death was 34-69 times higher during restraints/altercations, 32-51 times higher during pursuits, 20-23 times higher during physical training, and 6-9 times higher during medical/rescue operations. Results were robust to all sensitivity and stability analyses. Conclusions: Stressful law enforcement duties are associated with a risk of sudden cardiac death that is markedly higher than the risk during routine/non-emergency duties. Restraints/altercations and pursuits are associated with the greatest risk. Our findings have public health implications and suggest that primary and secondary cardiovascular prevention efforts are needed among law enforcement officers
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