Psychobiological influences on maternal sensitivity in the context of adversity.

This study evaluated prospective longitudinal relations among an index of poverty-related cumulative risk, maternal salivary cortisol, child negative affect, and maternal sensitivity across the first two postpartum years. Participants included 1,180 biological mothers residing in rural and predominantly low-income communities in the US. Multilevel growth curve analyses indicated that an index of cumulative risk was positively associated with maternal cortisol across the postpartum (study visits occurring at approximately 7, 15, and 24 months postpartum) over and above effects for African American ethnicity, time of day of saliva collection, age, parity status, having given birth to another child, contraceptive use, tobacco smoking, body mass index, and breastfeeding. Consistent with a psychobiological theory of mothering, maternal salivary cortisol was negatively associated with maternal sensitivity observed during parent-child interactions across the first two postpartum years over and above effects for poverty-related cumulative risk, child negative affect, as well as a large number of covariates associated with cortisol and maternal sensitivity. Child negative affect expressed during parent-child interactions was negatively associated with observed maternal sensitivity at late (24 months) but not early time points of observation (7 months) and cumulative risk was negatively associated with maternal sensitivity across the postpartum and this effect strengthened over time. Results advance our understanding of the dynamic, transactional, and psychobiological influences on parental caregiving behaviors across the first two postpartum years

Profiles of academic/socioemotional competence: Associations with parenting, home, child care, and neighborhood

Studies have highlighted the need to better understand child development in rural contexts in the first years of life. This study uses a person-centered approach to determine patterns of academic/socioemotional competence profiles at 36 months of age in a sample of 1292 children living in rural poverty in North Carolina and Pennsylvania who participated in the Family Life Project. This study explores factors that contribute to profiles of academic/socioemotional competence, including parenting behavior, and home, child care, and neighborhood environments. Three profiles of academic/socioemotional competence emerged: 1) Non-Compliant Average Achiever, 2) Unengaged Low Achiever, and 3) Engaged High Achiever. These three groups significantly differed on profile indicators and on early parenting behaviors, and home, child care, and neighborhood characteristics. Study findings have implications for understanding the different profiles of young children's academic/socioemotional competence, and the need to strengthen the early care and education environments of children in rural communities

Measuring neighborhood deprivation for childhood health and development-scale implications in rural and urban context

Neighborhood deprivation plays an important role in childhood health and development, but defining the appropriate neighborhood definition presents theoretical as well as practical challenges. Few studies have compared neighborhood definitions out-side of highly urbanized settings. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate how various administrative and ego-centric neighborhood definitions may impact measured exposure to deprivation across the urban-rural continuum. We do so using the Family Life Project, a prospective longitudinal population-based sample of families living in North Carolina and Pennsylvania (USA), which also sets the stage for future investigations of neighborhood impacts on childhood health and development. To measure neighborhood deprivation, a standardized index of socioeconomic deprivation was calculated using data from the 2007-2011 American Community Survey. Families’ residential addresses when children were 2 months of age (n=1036) were geocoded and overlaid onto a deprivation index layer created at the census block group level to construct multiple administrative and ego-centric neighborhood definitions. Friedman tests were used to compare distributions of neighborhood deprivation across these neighborhood definitions within urbanized areas, urban clusters, and rural areas. Results indicated differences in urbanized areas (Chi-square=897.75, P<0.001) and urban clusters (Chi-square=687.83, P<0.001), but not in rural areas (Chi-square=13.52, P=0.332). Findings imply that in urban areas, choice of neighborhood definition impacts measured exposure to neighborhood deprivation. Although exposure to neighborhood deprivation appears to be less sensitive to neighborhood definition in rural areas, researchers should apply theoretical reasoning to choose appropriate definitions of children’s neighborhood

Emotional reactivity and parenting sensitivity interact to predict cortisol output in toddlers.

Cortisol output in response to emotion induction procedures was examined at child age 24 months in a prospective longitudinal sample of 1,292 children and families in predominantly low-income and non-urban communities in two regions of high poverty in the US. Multilevel analysis indicated that observed emotional reactivity to a mask presentation but not a toy removal procedure interacted with sensitive parenting to predict cortisol levels in children. For children experiencing high levels of sensitive parenting, cortisol output was high among children exhibiting high emotional reactivity and low among children exhibiting low emotional reactivity. For children experiencing low levels of sensitive parenting, cortisol output was unrelated to emotional reactivity

Greater fear reactivity and psychophysiological hyperactivity among infants with later conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits

Approximately one-third of children who meet criteria for conduct problems (CP) are also characterized by elevated callous-unemotional (CU) traits. This subgroup is at elevated risk for more pervasive and extreme levels of later antisocial behavior and has been characterized by a fearlessness temperament and blunted stress psychophysiology at older ages. The objective of this study is to examine group differences in fear reactivity and stress psychophysiology in infancy among children classified as having CP with CU (CP+CU), CP without CU (CP-only), or no CP in later childhood

Executive Function Buffers the Association between Early Math and Later Academic Skills

Extensive evidence has suggested that early academic skills are a robust indicator of later academic achievement; however, there is mixed evidence of the effectiveness of intervention on academic skills in early years to improve later outcomes. As such, it is clear there are other contributing factors to the development of academic skills. The present study tests the role of executive function (EF) (a construct made up of skills complicit in the achievement of goal-directed tasks) in predicting 5th grade math and reading ability above and beyond math and reading ability prior to school entry, and net of other cognitive covariates including processing speed, vocabulary, and IQ. Using a longitudinal dataset of N = 1292 participants representative of rural areas in two distinctive geographical parts of the United States, the present investigation finds EF at age 5 strongly predicts 5th grade academic skills, as do cognitive covariates. Additionally, investigation of an interaction between early math ability and EF reveals the magnitude of the association between early math and later math varies as a function of early EF, such that participants who have high levels of EF can “catch up” to peers who perform better on assessments of early math ability. These results suggest EF is pivotal to the development of academic skills throughout elementary school. Implications for further research and practice are discussed

Child Care and Cortisol Across Infancy and Toddlerhood: Poverty, Peers, and Developmental Timing

Evidence suggests that relations between child care and children's development-behaviorally and physiologically-likely differ between children from high-versus low-risk contexts. Using data from the Family Life Project (N = 1,155), the authors tested (a) whether within- and between-child differences in children's child care experiences (i.e., quantity, type, caregiver responsivity, and peer exposure) were predictive of their cortisol levels across infancy and toddlerhood and (b) whether these relations differed for children experiencing different levels of environmental risk. They found some evidence of such interactive effects. For children from high-risk contexts, within-child increases in child care hours were predictive of cortisol decreases. The inverse was evident for children from low-risk contexts. This relation grew across toddlerhood. Whereas a history of greater center-based child care was predictive of heightened cortisol levels for low-risk families, this was not the case for children from high-risk families. Irrespective of risk, greater peer exposure (between children) was associated with lower cortisol levels

Children’s Task Engagement During Challenging Puzzle Tasks

We examined children’s task engagement during a challenging puzzle task in the presence of their primary caregivers by using a representative sample of rural children from six high-poverty counties across two states. Weighted longitudinal confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling were used to identify a task engagement factor indicated by child positive mood, persistence, enthusiasm, and compliance at both 24 and 35 months. Child attention and maternal responsiveness were significantly related to child task engagement at 24 and 35 months controlling for demographic factors. Additionally, a challenging behavior factor in children’s task-oriented behaviors was found as indicated by child negative mood, aggression and noncompliance. This factor was predicted by low maternal acceptance of child behaviors. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed